Use of Unbound Materials for Sustainable Road Infrastructures
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Reference Standard
3. Materials
3.1. Base Materials
3.2. Leaching Test on the Base Materials
4. Mix-Design of Mixtures and Tests Results
4.1. Main Standard Requirements of Unbound Mixtures
4.2. CDW Mix Design Suitable for the Embankments
4.3. CDW and EAF Mix Design Suitable as Road Subgrade
- -
- there are no granules with a diameter greater than 63 mm;
- -
- the 0.063 mm passing is less than or equal to 15%;
- -
- the plasticity index is less than or equal to 6;
- -
- the 16 mm sieve passing is at least 50%;
- -
- the CBR lift index is higher than 10% after 4 days of immersion in water.
4.4. CDW and EAF Mix Design Suitable as Road Foundation
4.5. CDW and EAF Mix Design Suitable as Unbound Base
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameters | Units of Measure | Results on the Base Materials | Threshold Limit Value from [23] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
A, B, C | D | E | |||
pH | pH Unit | 8.4 | 12.5 | 10.4 | 5.5–12.0 |
COD | mg/l | 18 | 17 | 21 | 30 |
Nitrates | mg/l NO3 | 5.2 | 3 | 4.8 | 50 |
Fluorides | mg/l F | 0.42 | 0.2 | 0.51 | 1.5 |
Solfates | mg/l SO4 | 33.5 | 9.2 | 45.8 | 250 |
Chlorides | mg/l Cl | 8.6 | 8.0 | 26.8 | 100 |
Copper | mg/l Cu | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.05 |
Zinc | mg/l Zn | 0.03 | 0.006 | 2.7 | 3 |
Cobalt | μg/l Co | 6.2 | 2.0 | 36.7 | 250 |
Chromium | μg/l Cr | 14.3 | 8.0 | 24.8 | 50 |
Nichel | μg/l Ni | 3.9 | 5.0 | 6.8 | 10 |
Arsenic | μg/l As | 6.3 | 0.7 | 5.1 | 50 |
Cadmium | μg/l Cd | 0.7 | 0.8 | 3.8 | 5 |
Lead | μg/l Pb | 16.4 | 57 | 18.2 | 50 |
Characteristic | Standard | Usage | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Embankment | Subgrade | Unbound Foundation | Unbound Base | ||
Granulometric classification | EN 13285 | GN | GU | GA | GA |
Upper-sieve | EN 13285 | OC85 | OC75 | OC75 | OC85 |
Maximum content of fines | EN 13285 | UF35 | UF15 | UF9 | UF9 |
Minimum content of fines | EN 13285 | - | - | LF2 | LF2 |
Mixture designation | EN 13285 | 0/63 | 0/31.5 | 0/31.5 | 0/31.5 |
Resistance to fragmentation | EN 1097-2 | LA50 | LA45 | LA30 | LA30 |
Quality of fines | EN 933-8 | SE20 | SE30 | SE30 | SE50 |
Content of cementitious conglomerate fragments, etc. | EN 933-11 | Rcug50 | Rcug70 | Rcug90 | Rcug90 |
Content of floating materials: paper, wood, etc. | EN 933-11 | FL10- | FL5- | FL5- | FL5- |
Flattening of coarse aggregate | EN 933-3 | Fl50 | Fl35 | Fl35 | Fl35 |
Percentage of crushed/rounded particles | EN 933-5 | - | - | - | C90/3 |
Sulfate soluble in water | EN-1744-1 | SS0.2 | SS0.2 | SS0.2 | SS0.2 |
CBR bearing tests after four days of soaking in water on constipated samples, with humidity ±2% of the optimum at 94% of the maximum density of the modified Proctor test energy. | EN 13286-47 | - | ≥ 10 | ≥ 50 | - |
CBR tests after four days of soaking in water on constipated samples, with humidity ±2% of the optimum at 99% of the maximum density of the modified Proctor test energy. | - | - | - | - | ≥ 100 |
Embankment | Subgrade | Unbound Foundation | Unbound Base | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SO 1 (mm) | Passing | SO 1 (mm) | Passing | SO 1 (mm) | Passing | SO 1 (mm) | Passing | |||||
LL 2 % | UL 3 % | LL 2 % | UL 3 % | LL 2 % | UL 3 % | LL 2 % | UL 3 % | |||||
125 | 100 | 100 | 63 | 100 | 100 | 63 | 100 | 100 | 45 | 100 | 100 | |
63 | 85 | 99 | 45 | 85 | 100 | 45 | 85 | 100 | 31.5 | 85 | 99 | |
31.5 | - | - | 31.5 | 75 | 99 | 31.5 | 75 | 99 | 16 | 55 | 85 | |
16 | - | - | 16 | 50 | 90 | 16 | 55 | 85 | 8 | 35 | 65 | |
8 | - | - | 8 | 30 | 75 | 8 | 35 | 65 | 4 | 22 | 50 | |
4 | - | - | 4 | 15 | 60 | 4 | 22 | 50 | 2 | 15 | 40 | |
2 | - | - | 0.063 | 0 | 15 | 2 | 15 | 40 | 1 | 5 | 30 | |
1 | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | 5 | 30 | 0.5 | 0 | 20 | |
0.4 | - | - | - | - | - | 0.5 | 0 | 20 | 0.063 | 2 | 9 | |
0.063 | 0 | 35 | - | - | - | 0.063 | 2 | 9 | - | - | - | |
SO1 (mm) | Soil category additional limits | |||||||||||
A1-a | A1-b | A3 | ||||||||||
2 | 50 | - | - | |||||||||
0.4 | 30 | 50 | 50 | |||||||||
0.063 | 15 | 25 | 10 |
Sieves Opening (mm) | Passing (%) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Embankment 1 (0/63) | Subgrade 2 (0/31.5) | Foundation 3 (0/31.5) | Base 4 (0/31.5) | |
125 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 |
63 | 98.60 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 |
45 | - | 5 | 5 | 100.00 |
31.5 | 75.10 | 86.79 | 90.46 | 90.83 |
16 | 54.90 | 65.84 | 72.53 | 73.42 |
8 | 39.40 | 55.86 | 56.30 | 53.47 |
4 | 31.20 | 49.11 | 39.16 | 31.09 |
2 | 22.50 | 31.54 | 25.19 | 21.73 |
1 | 15.00 | 23.44 | 18.52 | 16.46 |
0.5 | 12.00 | 15.47 | 11.79 | 10.77 |
0.25 | 7.90 | 12.17 | 9.05 | 8.42 |
0.063 | 5.80 | 7.63 | 5.58 | 5.25 |
Characteristic | Standard | Results of laboratory tests according to EN standards | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Embankment (0/63) | Subgrade (0/31.5) | Foundation (0/31.5) | Base (0/31.5) | ||
Granulometric category | EN 13285 | GN | GU | GA | GA |
Upper-sieve | EN 13285 | OC85 | OC75 | OC75 | OC85 |
Maximum content of fines | EN 13285 | UF7 | UF9 | UF7 | UF7 |
Minimum content of fines | EN 13285 | - | - | LF5 | LF5 |
Resistance to fragmentation | EN 1097-2 | LA45 | LA40 | LA28 | LA25 |
Quality of fines | EN 933-8 | SE47 | SE46 | SE71 | SE75 |
Content of cementitious conglomerate fragments, etc. | EN 933-11 | Rcug90 | Rcug90 | Rcug90 | Rcug90 |
Content of floating materials: paper, wood, etc. | EN 933-11 | FL5- | FL5- | FL5- | FL5- |
Flattening of coarse aggregate | EN 933-3 | Fl20 | Fl20 | Fl20 | Fl20 |
Percentage of crushed/rounded particles | EN 933-5 | - | - | - | C90/3 |
Sulfate soluble in water | EN 1744-1 | SS0.2 | SS0.2 | SS0.2 | SS0.2 |
CBR tests after four days of soaking in water on constipated samples with humidity ±2% of the optimum at 94% of the maximum density of the modified Proctor test energy. | EN 13286-47 | 65% | 65% | 70% | - |
CBR tests after four days of soaking in water on constipated samples with humidity ±2% of the optimum at 99% of the maximum density of the modified Proctor test energy. | - | - | - | - | 110% |
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Ciampa, D.; Cioffi, R.; Colangelo, F.; Diomedi, M.; Farina, I.; Olita, S. Use of Unbound Materials for Sustainable Road Infrastructures. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3465. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10103465
Ciampa D, Cioffi R, Colangelo F, Diomedi M, Farina I, Olita S. Use of Unbound Materials for Sustainable Road Infrastructures. Applied Sciences. 2020; 10(10):3465. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10103465
Chicago/Turabian StyleCiampa, Donato, Raffaele Cioffi, Francesco Colangelo, Maurizio Diomedi, Ilenia Farina, and Saverio Olita. 2020. "Use of Unbound Materials for Sustainable Road Infrastructures" Applied Sciences 10, no. 10: 3465. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10103465