Equine-Assisted Experiential Learning: A Literature Review of Embodied Leadership Development in Organizational Behavior

Abstract

Background: Equine-assisted experiential learning (EAL) is an emerging approach that uses human–horse interactions to develop leadership skills through experiential methods. Purpose: This review synthesizes the literature on the role of EAL in developing leadership competencies and explores its implications for workplace learning. Design/methodology/approach: A narrative review was conducted examining empirical studies and theoretical frameworks on EAL and leadership development. Findings/Conclusions: Recent studies show EAL improves self-awareness, emotional intelligence, nonverbal communication, trust building, adaptability, and problem solving. These competencies are fostered through activities such as ground-based exercises, join-up techniques, and trust-building tasks, which require congruence between intention and action. Participants report behavioral changes such as improved empathy, clarity under pressure, and team cohesion. These align with core management skills for organizational performance. Implications: EAL complements traditional leadership training by developing relational and embodied leadership skills, including trust building, adaptability, and emotional intelligence, which contribute to organizational resilience and sustainable growth.

1. Significance of the Research

This research highlights the value of equine-assisted experiential learning as an innovative approach to leadership development, offering practical insights for enhancing workplace effectiveness and professional growth.

Humans and horses have interacted for over 10,000 years, initially for utilitarian purposes such as meat, milk, and transportation (Fages et al., 2019; Turchin et al., 2016). Over time, this relationship has transitioned into domains like sports, leisure, and more recently, rehabilitative and educational pursuits (Guinnefollau et al., 2020; Merkies & Franzin, 2021). The ability of horses to recognize human emotions and respond through nuanced body language has positioned them as effective partners in equine-assisted experiential learning (EAL) programs aimed at enhancing human emotional intelligence and interpersonal skills (Braun et al., 2024).

Despite the growing popularity of EAL in therapeutic and educational domains, its application within organizational behavior and corporate leadership development remains underexplored. The existing literature primarily focuses on psychological or rehabilitative outcomes (Burgon, 2011; Ayala et al., 2021), with limited empirical research examining its effectiveness in enhancing leadership competencies within workplace contexts. Furthermore, few studies provide structured frameworks or assess measurable leadership outcomes resulting from EAL programs in corporate settings (Stock & Kolb, 2016; Gehrke, 2020). This review addresses this gap by synthesizing evidence on how EAL can be integrated into leadership development initiatives and by evaluating its implications for organizational practice. Specifically, it examines how human–horse interactions cultivate leadership competencies such as emotional intelligence, communication, and self-awareness, which are critical for navigating today’s dynamic corporate environments.

The novelty of this study lies in positioning EAL as a complementary method to traditional leadership development models, which typically rely on cognitive-based approaches such as classroom training, case studies, or mentoring (Day et al., 2021). Unlike these methods, EAL provides an embodied, experiential modality that leverages nonverbal communication, emotional regulation, and relational awareness—skills that are often neglected in conventional programs. For example, while 360-degree feedback or coaching primarily target cognitive and behavioral aspects, EAL engages participants in real-time feedback loops with horses, requiring congruence between intention and action. This embodied interaction fosters authenticity, adaptability, and trust building in ways traditional methods cannot replicate.

In light of these considerations, this review is guided by the central question: How does equine-assisted experiential learning (EAL) contribute to the development of key leadership competencies, and what are the implications of its application within organizational contexts? This question aims to evaluate the unique value EAL offers compared with traditional leadership development approaches and to explore its potential as an innovative tool for enhancing workplace learning and performance. By bridging the gap between traditional leadership development approaches and innovative, experiential methods, this study underscores the transformative potential of EAL programs. Through engagement with horses, participants gain critical leadership insights that are transferable to professional environments, enabling sustainable growth and adaptability in organizations.

2. Literature Review

In the present volatile corporate environment, increasing internal and external pressures experienced by companies are driving more need for the improvement of leadership abilities. Highly skilled leaders have a clear competitive advantage since good leadership helps them inspire their followers to reach particular goals (Samoka et al., 2023). Therefore, the choice of leadership development projects is absolutely vital; they should be customized to fit the needs and situation of both people and the organization.

Leadership programs should be assessed for measurable and sustainable changes in leader–follower relationships and for their impact on organizational results (Vasudevan et al., 2025).

Although experiential learning projects in leadership development are few, the rise of EAL programs is significant in the equine-assisted learning field. But studies assessing the effectiveness of these unique experiential learning programs are few.

This review aims to provide a strong theoretical and contextual basis for exploring the use of EAL as an experiential and embodied approach to leadership development in corporate settings. Leadership development has to go beyond traditional knowledge-based models and embrace holistic, experiential, and transformational strategies as the corporate world confronts more complicated, volatile, and emotionally taxing problems. This chapter investigates the current research’s novelty and need as well as gaps, conceptual linkages, and existing scholarship spread over several related fields.

To understand how equine-assisted experiential learning (EAL) contributes to leadership growth, it is first necessary to distinguish between different paradigms of leadership development. The following section outlines foundational distinctions in the literature, beginning with the differentiation between leader development and leadership development.

2.1. Difference Between Leader Development and Leadership Development

Leader development focuses on enhancing the skills, knowledge, and abilities of an individual leader. Leadership development, on the other hand, emphasizes fostering interactions among individuals to cultivate social assets (Gemeda & Lee, 2020; Mulat & Singh, 2023). Both approaches are complementary and necessary for effective leadership cultivation (Ljungblom, 2022). This study adopts insights from previous works (e.g., Koris et al., 2017; Sivagurunathan et al., 2024a) to bridge these aspects and provide practical applications for leadership development.

There is a prevalent lack of clarity in much of the research on leadership and leader development. Many studies on leadership development focus on individual leader growth, examining methods that help organizations enhance leadership capabilities among executives (Kjellström et al., 2020). Day (2000) highlights a gap between the practical implementation of leadership development and its theoretical underpinnings, suggesting that alignment between leadership theory and development practices is crucial.

Having clarified the conceptual difference between leader and leadership development, the next subsection reviews how leadership development is typically approached in organizational contexts, particularly through structured programs and initiatives.

2.2. Leadership Development Programs

Internal and external pressures inside the business environment are driving increasing demand for leadership training (Iqbal et al., 2020). Flat hierarchical systems create internal tension by questioning the conventional view of a leader only as a “boss” to also include duties including coordinator, mentor, and advisor. External pressures create uncertainty and complex challenges that a few leaders alone cannot resolve (Mulat & Singh, 2023). Therefore, organizations see efficient leadership growth as a means to acquire a competitive advantage.

Day (2000) notes that significant research on leadership development has emerged in the past decade. The paper implies that, rather than stressing only leadership theory, the focus in leadership development has shifted toward understanding and enhancing development. This suggests that more importance is being placed on developing leadership skills to achieve certain objectives. Not only should one focus on leadership training, one should also consider how these training programs fit the particular needs and situations of people as well as companies (Maheshwari, 2022).

The success of leadership development programs depends on their integration into daily operations. They must become a routine practice across all levels and receive strong support from top management (Dalakoura, 2010). Many studies on leadership development agree that practicing in work-based settings is vital for growing leadership skills (McCauley & Palus, 2021). Tsyganenko (2014) argues that successful leadership courses should enable participants to apply new skills effectively in their workplace.

Traditional leadership programs dominate corporate training, but recent critiques highlight their limitations in fostering deep, embodied, and relational leadership capacities. The following section contrasts traditional cognitive models with experiential approaches, laying the groundwork for understanding how EAL fits within this experiential paradigm.

2.3. Traditional vs. Experiential Approaches

Historically, especially in corporate settings, leadership development has focused on conventional educational approaches based on cognitive and behavioral learning theories. Usually, these programs feature coaching or mentoring, 360-degree feedback implements, case studies, leadership competency frameworks, and classroom-based education (Day et al., 2021; Ljungblom, 2022). Their emphasis is mostly on the transfer of knowledge, conceptual understanding, and the application of logical decision-making systems. Often, leadership skills are broken down into visible behaviors, graded, evaluated, and then addressed by means of didactic teaching or separate performance-based feedback systems.

Although many corporate development plans rely on traditional approaches, critics argue these methods fail to address the embodied, emotional, and relational aspects of leadership in today’s complex business environments (Petrie, 2014). These strategies are often based on linear, hierarchical learning models that presume leadership is a skill set that can be precisely transferred from teacher to student, detached from the lived experience, cultural context, or embodied awareness of the participant (Meyer & Reigstad, 2023). Furthermore, they often neglect to involve the entire person—intellectually, emotionally, physically, and spiritually—and do not adequately equip leaders to react adaptively to the fast-changing, uncertain, and relationally dynamic settings characterizing modern organizational life (Page et al., 2020).

Experiential learning is defined as a process in which knowledge is created through the transformation of experience, as conceptualized in Kolb’s (1984) learning cycle. This approach contrasts with traditional cognitive models that emphasize theoretical instruction and abstract reasoning. By contrast, experiential approaches to leadership development provide a strong alternative that focuses on learning via direct experience, emotional involvement, self-reflection, and embodied action. Based on the writings of educational theorist such as David Kolb (1984), experiential learning theory holds that the cyclical process of action, reflection, conceptualization, and experimentation rather than just information transfer defines good leadership development. Such methods are holistic, iterative, and individualized; they demand active participant engagement with their own beliefs, anxieties, relational dynamics, and internal reactions.

Outdoor adventure programs, equine-assisted learning, role-play simulations, improvisational theater, martial arts training, and somatic coaching are all examples of experiential leadership development techniques. These modalities frequently include aspects of discomfort, unpredictability, and interpersonal feedback that reflect the actual leadership challenges. Often unreachable via conventional classroom-based education, they enable people to access tacit knowledge, foster emotional intelligence, build situational awareness, and participate in profound personal transformation (Gehrke, 2020; Kong, 2021; Trzmiel et al., 2019).

The function of the body and feelings in learning is one of the key differences between the two paradigms. Focusing instead on control, reason, and cognitive superiority, traditional models sometimes ignore or pathologize emotional reactions (Ashkanasy & Humphrey, 2011). Experiential methods, on the other hand, greet the body as a source of intelligence and leadership insight (Page et al., 2020). Leaders become attuned to their own internal states and relational impact through physical action—such as movement, posture, rhythm, and balance—as found in practices like horseback riding or archery (Elif, 2021; Sivagurunathan et al., 2024b). Essential in human-centered business cultures, this awareness allows more grounded, present, and relational kinds of leadership.

Moreover, experiential learning settings sometimes let participants co-create meaning by means of shared experiences, therefore allowing emergent learning where results are not predetermined. This fits more closely with complexity theory and adaptive leadership models that advocate for non-linear, iterative, and context-sensitive leadership capacities (Uhl-Bien & Arena, 2017). In such environments, vulnerability, uncertainty, and failure are not only tolerated but rather welcomed as fundamental components of the developmental process.

Experiential approaches often include cross-cultural, archetypal, and symbolic components, accessing deeper narratives of identity, bravery, and transformation. For example, EAL practice is not only a physical test but also a metaphor for emotional control under pressure, strategic focus, and leadership balance (Fijn, 2021). These symbolic components help individuals to have personal awareness and permanent behavioral change since they resonate more with them.

Although conventional leadership development strategies provide organization, clarity, and replicability, they sometimes fail to equip leaders for the emotional, embodied, and relational demands of 21st-century leadership (Day et al., 2021). Experiential approaches are especially well suited to creative ideas like horseback archery-based leadership programs since they offer a dynamic, integrative substitute that promotes transformation from the inside out. This difference is essential to support the methodological and theoretical orientation of the present work.

While traditional approaches provide structure and replicability, they have been criticized for neglecting the emotional and embodied dimensions of leadership (Petrie, 2014). Experiential approaches, including EAL, offer greater engagement and transformation, but empirical evidence remains limited, particularly regarding long-term behavioral impact in corporate settings. Few studies systematically compare these methods, leaving questions about scalability, cost-effectiveness, and integration into formal programs unresolved.

Experiential approaches emphasize the whole person—mind, body, and emotion—in the learning process. Among these, a growing body of scholarship has focused on embodied leadership, which aligns closely with the core principles of EAL. This section explores how embodied leadership theories contribute to our understanding of leadership as a somatic and relational practice.

2.4. The Rise of Embodied Leadership Practices

Leadership theory and practice have changed noticeably in recent years toward what academics call “embodied leadership”. Embodied leadership focuses on physical awareness, emotional regulation, and nonverbal communication, viewing the body as an essential source of leadership intelligence (Meyer & Reigstad, 2023). Embodied leadership questions long-held beliefs in conventional leadership models that value rational thought and verbal communication over the intelligence of the body, presence, intuition, and nonverbal dynamics (Fisher & Robbins, 2014; Waite et al., 2014).

Various academic fields converging on the realization that leadership is an emergent relational phenomenon arising from interactions involving the whole person, not only a function of mental processes or formal authority, has led to the rise of embodied leadership. Influences from neuroscience (Damasio, 1994), somatic psychology (Reuille-Dupont, 2021), mindfulness (Zargar et al., 2021), and phenomenology (McNarry et al., 2020) have brought a deeper knowledge of how embodied awareness—such as posture, breath, gesture, tone, and movement—affects how leaders interact with others, control their internal states, and make ethical choices.

Embodied leadership also understands that the body holds memory, cultural conditioning, and lived experiences, all of which influence how one leads and reacts to challenges. Relevant to this study, equine-assisted learning as well as somatic coaching, martial arts, yoga, and equine-assisted work all offer venues for leaders to increase their self-awareness, emotional control, and presence-based decision making (Chen et al., 2024; Galantino et al., 2019; Strozzi-Heckler, 2014). These practices allow access to nonverbal forms of knowledge—such as intuition, balance, and rhythm—that conventional leadership paradigms often marginalize or dismiss.

In part, the increasing focus on embodied leadership reflects the shortcomings of abstract, decontextualized concepts of leadership development. Companies are more and more conscious that their leaders have to work well under pressure, interact sincerely with many different stakeholders, and negotiate complexity with genuineness (Gemeda & Lee, 2020). By fostering resilience, improving empathy, and promoting a deeper sense of grounded presence, embodied practices help to develop these abilities (Sivagurunathan et al., 2024a).

Furthermore, the somatic turn in leadership research is sometimes connected to critical viewpoints deconstructing hierarchical, disembodied, and masculinized representations of leadership. Valuing vulnerability, relationality, and presence as forms of strength rather than indicators of weakness, embodied leadership provides a more inclusive and feminist option (Sinclair, 2009). It fits with Indigenous and Eastern philosophies stressing balance, harmony, and right action via interaction with the body and environment (Oluwayemi, 2018).

Importantly for this study, horseback riding and its learning nature shows many ideas of embodied leadership. Riding while taking the lead calls for complete bodily integration; timing, balance, breath, and intention all have to line up. Such abilities reflect the traits of good leaders—focus in the midst of turmoil, presence in motion, and relational sensitivity. Thus, EAL is a lived, embodied practice that shows how leadership can be developed by means of rigorous bodily awareness and relational harmony, not only a metaphor.

Although embodied leadership is conceptually strong, its operationalization in organizational contexts lacks consensus. Current studies offer rich theoretical insights but limited empirical validation. EAL represents a practical application of embodied leadership principles, yet its adoption in leadership development remains sporadic and under-researched.

In addition to skills and behaviors, effective leadership involves continuous identity formation and transformation. The next section considers how leadership development can be framed as a form of identity work—an idea especially relevant to EAL, where leaders engage in symbolic, embodied experiences that reshape their self-concept.

2.5. Leadership as Identity Work and Transformation

Modern leadership theory is coming to understand more and more that leadership is an evolving expression of one’s internal sense of identity, not only a set of externally visible behaviors or technical skills. Within this framework, leadership is a process of becoming whereby people constantly negotiate and reconfigure their values, self-concept, and worldview in reaction to personal and professional challenges (Chandolia & Anastasiou, 2020; Pillay, 2021; Uhl-Bien & Arena, 2017). This paradigm, called identity-based leadership development, holds that the growth of self-awareness, authenticity, and meaning-making is inextricably tied to transforming leadership (Bohari et al., 2024).

Psychological development theory and organizational behavior both support the idea of leadership as identity work. This implies that individuals grow more able to accept complexity, uncertainty, and different points of view as they pass through stages of adult development—from dependent to self-authoring to self-transforming mindsets (Benmira & Agboola, 2021; Khan et al., 2020). These changes are not only cognitive; they also include emotionally charged, existential events that question one’s fundamental beliefs and provoke more profound self-reflection. Such events—sometimes known as disorienting dilemmas (Hoggan & Hoggan-Kloubert, 2022)—can inspire identity rebuilding and transformational learning.

From an organizational point of view, identity work is the process of harmonizing internal stories with outside roles and expectations. Leaders frequently struggle with conflicts between their personal values and institutional expectations, between vulnerability and power, or between performance standards and relational integrity.

Good leadership development initiatives acknowledge this conflict and design developmental environments—what Petriglieri (2011) refers to as “identity workspaces”—where leaders can investigate, disturb, and rebuild their self-perception in relation to their professional responsibilities.

Experiential and embodied techniques are especially well suited to assist this process. Unlike conventional educational approaches that favor abstract thinking, embodied practices involve the whole person and enable experiential access to formerly unconscious or underappreciated facets of identity.

Improvisational theater, storytelling, mindfulness meditation, and equine-assisted learning are among activities that have been demonstrated to produce strong emotional and symbolic experiences that enhance self-insight and support genuine leadership (Sivagurunathan et al., 2024b).

As a demanding and symbolic activity, EAL provides an especially rich medium for identity work. It calls for participants to control fear, hone attention, attune to a nonverbal partner—the horse—and show grace under pressure. These expectations reflect the identity struggles of leadership: staying calm in uncertainty, building trust-based influence, and acting purposefully (Chen et al., 2024).

In general, leadership as identity work reconsiders development as a profoundly personal path rather than the acquisition of tools. Supported by embodied, meaningful activities like EAL, this path can lead to more authenticity, emotional resilience, and relational presence—qualities of the sort of leadership required in the complicated and fast changing world of today.

Another underexplored aspect of leadership learning is the role of the natural environment. Given that many EAL programs are conducted outdoors, understanding how environmental factors enhance experiential learning is key to appreciating the full impact of equine-assisted methods.

2.6. The Role of Nature and Environment in Leadership Learning

The natural environment plays a pivotal yet often underestimated role in the process of leadership development. Traditional corporate training environments—such as hotel conference rooms or online platforms—are often sterile, controlled, and disconnected from the sensory and emotional richness of lived experience (Lundqvist et al., 2022). On the other hand, natural and outdoor environments offer a multi-sensory, dynamic backdrop that can significantly improve experiential learning and emotional engagement. In this sense, nature is an active co-facilitator of transforming events rather than a passive background (Isham et al., 2025).

Studies in environmental education and ecopsychology emphasize the healing and regulatory effects of nature on the human psyche. Research indicates that immersion in natural settings increases attention, lowers stress, improves mood, and promotes a sense of connectedness and perspective (Jimenez et al., 2021; Rueff & Reese, 2023). Reflective learning and emotional self-regulation thrive under these circumstances—both vital skills in strong leadership.

Being in nature invites people to slow down, face internal stories, and interact with uncertainty and change in real time in the framework of leadership development. Often called “liminality”, outdoor experiential programs like Outward Bound or wilderness rites of passage use these circumstances to generate a state of increased awareness and vulnerability (Turner, 1969). Liminal spaces let people access deeper layers of meaning and possibility by dissolving traditional boundaries of time, identity, and role.

Furthermore, nature frequently offers difficult, erratic problems—weather changes, topographical barriers, animal behavior—that reflect the unstable and uncertain settings leaders confront in the business world. The natural environment is a rich metaphorical and practical training ground for leadership, since these difficulties call for adaptive responses, systematic thinking, and embodied presence.

Practiced outside, EAL adds a triadic relationship—human, horse, and environment—thereby increasing this dynamic. The horse’s gait and responsiveness are affected by the terrain; wind and weather affect the archer’s accuracy; ambient stimuli define the attentional field. This complexity teaches leaders to attune not only to themselves and others but also to more general environmental systems—a skill increasingly important in an age of ecological and organizational complexity.

From a symbolic perspective, the natural environment resonates with archetypal and mythopoetic appeal. Often in literature and mythology, forests, plains, and mountains are depicted as sites of trial, discovery, and transformation. Participating in physically demanding, skill-based activities in these environments—such as horseback riding—evokes these deeper layers of meaning, so reinforcing the experience as a rite of passage or heroic journey.

Finally, nature breaks the routine patterns and distractions of contemporary life. Participants are more likely to find stillness, uncertainty, and silence away from digital devices and performance-driven settings—conditions that create the space for deeper introspection, intuition, and self-connection. For leaders aiming to lead with authenticity, compassion, and vision, these are not accidental by-products but rather fundamental traits.

The influence of nature and environment on leadership development goes far beyond aesthetics or novelty. It is a pedagogical tool that increases bodily awareness, emotional depth, and systematic knowledge. The natural environment becomes a catalyst for the kind of deep, reflective, and transformational learning that conventional leadership programs often fail to deliver when combined with embodied practices such as horseback archery.

With the theoretical foundations in place, the next sections turn explicitly to equine-assisted programs. First, we explore how EAL is being positioned as a novel leadership development tool with unique strengths in building interpersonal and emotional competencies.

2.7. Equine-Assisted Leadership Development (EALD)

EALD integrates equine-assisted activities to enhance leadership skills. While much research focuses on therapeutic outcomes, Almeras and Bresciani (2023) note the potential for leadership skill development through these programs. Fowler et al. (2012) identifies “join-up”, a method developed by Monty Roberts in which horses are trained to establish trust and cooperation with humans through nonverbal communication. This technique emphasizes the importance of trust and communication, serving as a metaphor for leader–follower relationships.

Incorporating horses as biofeedback agents, Gehrke et al. (2018) found that EALD enhances leadership efficacy through activities like equestrian schooling and team-building exercises. Stock and Kolb (2016) used experiential learning frameworks to demonstrate the benefits of EAL, such as improved self-awareness and confidence. Participants reported behavioral changes in the workplace stemming from enhanced interpersonal skills and self-discovery. From their research conclusion, it was revealed that equine-assisted experiential learning played a role in enhancing management development. Furthermore, it enhanced self-awareness, and when utilized in a professional setting, facilitated the individual to enhance their leadership capabilities (Stock & Kolb, 2016).

The guided experience created a learning environment that helped participants progress, offered immediate feedback, and allowed time for reflection. The phases of metaphor aligned with the learning cycle effectively illustrated the parallels between interacting with horses and interacting with individuals, offering participants valuable insights into their own behaviors. This, in turn, fostered a process of self-exploration and enhanced learning.

Building on this foundation, the following subsections detail how EAL is operationalized in practice. This includes a review of its theoretical underpinnings, skill development outcomes, and the specific experiential learning processes involved.

2.8. Equine-Assisted Programs as Experiential Learning

Equine-assisted programs include diverse modalities such as Equine-Assisted Psychotherapy (EAP) and equine-assisted learning (EAL). While EAP focuses on therapeutic goals and psychological well-being, EAL is designed to develop learning and performance-related competencies, including leadership and communication skills (EAGALA, 2011). Rooted in the physical and emotional responsiveness of horses, these programs exploit the embodied and relational dimensions of learning.

Four different kinds of equine therapeutic modalities are available:

• Equine-Facilitated Psychotherapy (EFP) is a therapeutic tool helping people to develop positive behavioral and emotional well-being. Horses, as (Brandt, 2013) points out, help to develop mutual trust, affection, tenacity, firmness, and responsibility, which, when combined with traditional psychotherapeutic techniques, offer a unique improvement in the therapeutic process. The Equine-Assisted Growth and Learning Association (EAGALA) describes the differences between EAP and EAL as shown in

  Table 1. Differences between EAP and EAL (EAGALA, 2011).

  Equine-Assisted Psychotherapy (EAP)	Equine-Assisted Learning (EAL)
  Focuses on the treatment objectives of the client or group.	Focuses on to the learning or educational objectives of an individual or a group.
  The emphasis is on establishing foundational horse-related activities that necessitate the client or group to utilize specific skills outlined in their treatment plan or objectives.	The emphasis is on establishing equestrian-based ground activities aimed at acquiring particular skills or attaining educational objectives, as determined by the individual or group involved.
  Examples: Enhanced conduct and interpersonal abilities, decreased levels of depression and anxiety, and the fostering of relationships.	Examples: Enhanced company revenue through increased product sales, developed leadership abilities within an organization, and provided resiliency training for military personnel.

  . EAT sessions—EFP, EAP, and EFL—show the mirroring phenomenon (Sheena, 2020). Equine-assisted therapy uses a trust-building strategy in which the horse acts as a “communication arbitrator” to help the rehabilitant, the horse, and the psychotherapist build a trust bond (Burgon, 2011).
• Equine-assisted learning (EAL) lets people interact with horses to improve their learning and developmental process.
• Therapeutic Horseback Riding (THR) is riding horses to encourage relaxation and improve coordination, muscular strength, self-confidence, and general well-being for people with disabilities. This type of therapy aims to provide these therapeutic effects by means of the rider’s body’s rhythmic movement, which mimics the motion of human gait (Weiss-Dagan et al., 2022).
• Hippotherapy is a therapeutic intervention in the domains of speech and occupational therapy. Hippotherapy uses the particular movements of horses to improve the motor skills and sensory processing of people under treatment. Trained physical therapists, certified occupational therapists, or speech pathologists administer this kind of therapy (Ahmed et al., 2023).

Experiential learning emphasizes knowledge acquisition through real-world experience. Almeras and Bresciani (2023) argue that adult learning extends beyond traditional classrooms, incorporating problem solving and reflection. Kolb’s learning cycle aligns closely with EAL, allowing participants to develop leadership skills through direct, hands-on experiences (Stock & Kolb, 2016). Outdoor experiential learning such as interacting with horses fosters episodic memory formation and self-awareness. By mirroring workplace dynamics, these interactions provide participants with insights into their behaviors, enhancing their capacity to manage teams effectively (Stock & Kolb, 2016). Kolb formulated the experiential learning theory, delineating the interrelations among developmental stages, learning mechanisms, and experiences. The learner’s acquisition of knowledge is shaped by their experiences, thereby impacting their cognitive advancement. The process of acquiring knowledge begins with an initial stage in which the individual undergoes a concrete experience. Subsequently, the reflection and observation of this encounter leads to the abstract conceptualization phase. During this stage, abstract concepts and generalizations are developed to evaluate hypotheses in subsequent scenarios. The final stage involves active experimentation, wherein the newly acquired knowledge or behaviors are implemented, leading to the generation of fresh experiences.

2.9. Equine-Assisted Learning (EAL)

As described in the earlier part, EAL is regarded as a component of equine-assisted programs. Elif (2021) claims EAL is using the interaction between people and horses to enable experiential learning. These initiatives apply Monty’s join-up approach, which emphasizes building a good relationship between the horse and the participant by means of constructive interaction. “Join-up” refers to the most fundamental kind of leader–follower interaction, which consists of a one-on-one relationship (Loftus et al., 2016).

EAT employs a similar trust-building approach, utilizing the horse as a facilitator of communication. As described by (Souilm, 2023) and in the EAL course of (Almeras & Bresciani, 2023), this therapeutic modality calls for the creation of a trust bond among the rehabilitant, the horse, and the psychotherapist. In this setting, the trust dynamic is among the student, horse, and facilitator.

Monty teaches people how to read horses’ nonverbal signals. These signals, according to Muller et al. (2016), are subtle forms of communication comprising ear orientation toward the observer, licking and chewing motions, and head lowering. Studies show that the use of horses in equine-assisted programs has been successful because of the close relationships horses form with people (Ayala et al., 2021). According to Trösch et al. (2019), the horse has developed complex communication systems mostly depending on body language, therefore allowing them to skillfully sense human feelings and intentions. This capacity allows the leader to see the value of nonverbal communication in properly interacting with followers. Braun et al. (2024) claim participants also form a notable mutual link with the horses.

The horse’s reaction to the person reflects the behavior and feelings projected by the human (Scopa et al., 2020). By means of reading their body language and energy, a horse can quickly identify a person’s emotional state, motives, and needs. Horses lack a frontal cortex, which prevents them from separating their emotions from their actions, therefore causing this true reflection (Gehrke et al., 2018). Horses therefore offer comments on the sincerity of the person engaging with them.

The above results show that horses can read human body language, offer honest reactions, and therefore be good friends in EAL projects. EAL is commonly used in leadership training, especially for corporate teams and executives. Research has shown that participants in EAL programs report increased self-awareness, clarity under pressure, and enhanced ability to lead others through influence rather than authority (Braun et al., 2024; Gehrke et al., 2018).

The immediacy of equine feedback forces participants to recalibrate their leadership style in real time, emphasizing authenticity, congruence, and embodied presence. Participants can provoke favorable responses from the horses by means of body language modification.

2.10. Leadership Skills and Their Alignment with Equine-Assisted Learning

Leadership development encompasses a range of cognitive, behavioral, and relational competencies necessary for guiding individuals and organizations effectively. These skills typically include communication, emotional intelligence, decision making, adaptability, conflict resolution, and strategic thinking (Whetten & Cameron, 2011). However, the extent to which these skills can be nurtured through experiential modalities such as EAL varies considerably. EAL proves especially effective in cultivating emotional intelligence, self-awareness, trust building, and nonverbal communication. Horses, as highly responsive and perceptive animals, provide immediate, authentic feedback based on the participant’s emotional state and behavior. This interaction helps leaders become more aware of their internal responses and develop greater empathy, a cornerstone of emotional intelligence (Braun et al., 2024). Additionally, by working with horses in exercises that require calmness and clarity, participants enhance their ability to remain centered and authentic, thereby strengthening trust-building capabilities critical in leadership contexts (Gehrke, 2020).

Nonverbal communication is another area where EAL offers substantial benefits. Horses rely predominantly on body language, and successful interaction depends on the leader’s ability to send clear, consistent signals through posture and gesture (Loftus et al., 2016). Similarly, EAL environments often involve unpredictable scenarios that mirror organizational challenges, requiring leaders to adapt quickly, manage stress effectively, and demonstrate resilience under pressure (Gehrke et al., 2018). These embodied experiences foster adaptability and composure, qualities that are increasingly important in dynamic business environments. In contrast, technical competencies such as strategic planning or financial decision making are less supported by EAL, as they demand analytical reasoning and abstract problem-solving skills beyond the scope of experiential learning with horses. Therefore, EAL should be seen as a complementary approach, enriching leadership programs by focusing on embodied and relational dimensions rather than replacing traditional development methods.

Despite promising findings on EAL’s impact on emotional intelligence, trust building, and communication (Gehrke, 2020; Braun et al., 2024), existing research relies heavily on small-scale, qualitative studies. Few longitudinal or comparative studies confirm whether these benefits translate into measurable workplace outcomes, highlighting the need for further empirical validation.

2.11. Equine-Assisted Experiential Learning Process Flow

Equine-assisted experiential learning centers on the individual’s interaction with horses, emphasizing the enhancement of social, emotional, and cognitive skills (Cartinella, 2009; Merkies & Franzin, 2021). Furthermore, the programs incorporate novel and less commonly utilized methods for enhancing leadership abilities (Stock & Kolb, 2016).

Horsemanship skills aid individuals in engaging with horses and refining their strategies for optimal interaction (Roberts, 1997). It is important to note that equine-assisted learning should not be confused with traditional riding or horsemanship instruction. Participants in such programs are often involved in the care and management of their assigned horse. While certain programs may include riding as a component, the primary focus of most programs is on non-mounted activities that facilitate human–horse interactions and necessitate the application of specific skills by individuals or groups.

In the Stock and Kolb (2016) training sessions, each session is tailored to the specific participants involved, with the number of sessions and the format of the program being adjusted based on factors such as group size, objectives, and time constraints to maximize benefits. The sessions are organized in a manner that enables participants to observe, engage in tasks, and make adjustments according to their individual requirements. Upon arrival at a nearby equestrian facility, participants receive an orientation to familiarize them with the agenda and procedures they will encounter during the session. The workshops’ programs are characterized by their adaptability and flexibility, encompassing a range of topics, typically including familiarization with horses, fundamental horsemanship principles, techniques for catching and leading horses, nonverbal communication with horses, introduction to riding equipment and its maintenance, verbal communication with horses while riding, exercises to build trust, and collaborative activities involving both the horse and the participant.

The education team consists of the horse trainer, the licensed educator, and the horses. The horse trainer is required to possess extensive experience in working with horses and a deep understanding of their behaviors (Roberts, 1997). They are responsible for instructing participants on fundamental aspects of horse behavior, particularly in relation to the horse’s nature as a prey and herd animal, and guiding them on how to approach the horse before entering the arena. This instruction underscores the importance of self-awareness, accountability, and demonstrating respect toward the horse (Keaveney, 2008). The licensed equine-assisted learning practitioners encompass a diverse range of professionals such as educators, organizational consultants, corporate trainers, and life coaches who integrate horses into their client work (Sivagurunathan et al., 2024b). In this context, horses are considered collaborative facilitators of the workshop team, permitted to naturally react to occurrences during the sessions (Stock & Kolb, 2016). While the facilitator oversees and analyses participants’ interactions with the horses, fostering a reflective, experiential environment for personal growth, participants derive new insights from the intense emotional experiences encountered in these challenging activities (Stock & Kolb, 2016). A skilled professional who can interpret how the horse’s reactions reflect participants’ thoughts, characteristics, and conduct is essential for effectively conducting the workshops (Williams, 2021). Consequently, their feedback holds significant importance in this process.

While certain individuals may perceive the session to be daunting, it is imperative for practitioners to consider the comfort levels and potential anxieties of participants when engaging with horses (Stock & Kolb, 2016). It is essential to address any fears and establish a positive rapport with the animals. To ensure the well-being and ease of both the horses and participants during the session, practitioners should select horses that exhibit a calm demeanor and possess optimal physical, emotional, and mental health (Loftus et al., 2016). Furthermore, it is essential for the equine expert to possess a profound comprehension of the horses’ preferences and behavioral patterns. This knowledge allows them to predict and effectively handle the animals’ responses in different session scenarios (Burgon, 2011). Engaging in activities that involve interacting with horses, even when feeling hesitant, and successfully guiding these large creatures can promote self-awareness. It also provides meaningful symbolic parallels for navigating other challenging and intricate situations in one’s life (Almeras & Bresciani, 2023; Gehrke, 2020; Stock & Kolb, 2016; Koris et al., 2017).

2.12. Development of Leadership Skills Through Equine-Assisted Learning

Before presenting the figures that illustrate the EAL process and leadership skill development, it is important to clarify their purpose within this discussion. The next visuals link theory to practice: Figure 1 presents the experiential learning process flow that occurs during EAL sessions, showing how participants progress from orientation to behavioral integration. Prior to starting the training program, the leader and their followers already have a pre-existing relationship. Throughout the course, the participant undergoes an experiential learning process. By practicing the join-up technique with a horse, participants learn how to communicate effectively and develop stronger relationships, empowering the leader to implement what they have learned by fostering improved connections with their followers. The transformation that takes place within the leader plays a crucial role in this process as their enhanced skills and behavior positively influence individuals, leading to better relationships between the leader and followers.

Figure 2 categorizes leadership skills fostered through EAL into self-oriented, relational, and team-based domains. These frameworks are grounded in Kolb’s experiential learning cycle (Kolb, 1984) and principles of embodied leadership, highlighting how action, reflection, and feedback combine to produce transformational learning outcomes.

EAL facilitates the development of several core leadership skills through structured, experiential activities with horses (Burgon, 2011; Stock & Kolb, 2016). First, self-awareness is enhanced because horses act as mirrors, immediately reflecting a participant’s internal state through their reactions. A tense or inconsistent leader, for instance, may cause the horse to resist, prompting critical self-reflection and behavioral adjustment (Almeras & Bresciani, 2023). Emotional intelligence also improves significantly through EAL, as participants learn to interpret subtle nonverbal cues from horses—such as changes in ear position, posture, and breathing—while managing their own emotions in response to these cues. This deepens their capacity for empathy and emotional regulation, both of which are essential for effective leadership (Braun et al., 2024).

Trust building and authenticity are reinforced because horses demand congruence between intention and action. Leaders must demonstrate clarity, confidence, and sincerity to gain the horse’s cooperation, mirroring the relational dynamics found in organizational contexts (Gehrke, 2020). Similarly, communication skills—particularly nonverbal communication—are strengthened, as successful interaction with horses depends on using posture, tone, and gestures rather than verbal commands. These competencies are readily transferable to high-stakes environments where nonverbal influence plays a critical role (Loftus et al., 2016).

Adaptability and resilience are developed through the inherently unpredictable nature of working with horses. Participants must remain composed, flexible, and solution-oriented in the face of uncertainty, qualities that align closely with the demands of contemporary organizational life (Gehrke et al., 2018). Finally, team building and collaboration are cultivated in group-based EAL exercises, where participants coordinate tasks, share responsibilities, and engage in collective problem solving. This strengthens their ability to foster cohesion, trust, and mutual accountability within teams (Stock & Kolb, 2016).

Taken together, these experiential interactions provide a holistic developmental platform, addressing both intrapersonal and interpersonal dimensions of leadership. However, it is important to note that EAL is not designed to develop technical skills such as strategic planning or financial acumen. Therefore, organizations should integrate EAL into a broader leadership development framework that combines experiential learning with conventional cognitive-based approaches.

The skills acquired through EAL align with core management competencies outlined by Whetten and Cameron (2011). Research suggests that these programs yield improvements in leadership abilities including communication, adaptability, and relationship management (Gehrke, 2020; Williams, 2021). This model elucidates fundamental management competencies. It is anticipated that comparable enhancements in leadership skills could be attained through the utilization of EAL (Gehrke, 2020; Williams, 2021).

This improved model of leadership skills examines the competencies that are cultivated through EAL initiatives. These competencies are categorized into three distinct categories, with the first category focusing on the leader’s self-improvement skills.

• The leader cultivated self-awareness when engaging with horses (Almeras & Bresciani, 2023; Elif, 2021; Stock & Kolb, 2016).
• The leader learned how to handle stress and challenging situations (Earles et al., 2015; Gehrke et al., 2018; Jung et al., 2022).
• The leader acquired the ability to place trust in others (Burgon, 2011; Keaveney, 2008; Williams, 2021).
• The leader acquired the ability to address and resolve issues (Stock & Kolb, 2016; Koris et al., 2017).
• The leader observed a rise in their self-confidence (Fridén et al., 2022; Geddes, 2010; Punzo et al., 2022; Souilm, 2023).

The subsequent category pertains to the enhancement of relationship skills that were cultivated through EAL sessions.

• The leader acquired the ability to establish a trusting relationship with their followers, colleagues, and superiors (Burgon, 2011).
• The leader acquired the ability to engage effectively with peers, resulting in enhanced social relationships (Merkies & Franzin, 2021; Stock & Kolb, 2016).
• The leader acquired the skills necessary to effectively interact with their followers (Fransson, 2015; Gunter et al., 2017; Stock & Kolb, 2016).
• The leader gained important interpersonal skills needed to build productive and efficient interactions (Cartinella, 2009; Jaafar et al., 2023; Serot Almeras & Bresciani, 2021).

The third category consists of skills that assist the leader in improving the cohesiveness of the team

• With the horse’s aid, the leader became more adept at social interactions (Cartinella, 2009; Pelyva et al., 2020; Koris et al., 2017).
• The leader acquired the necessary skills to comprehend the dynamics within a group (Fransson, 2015).
• The leader acquired the skills necessary to enhance the unity and solidarity within the group (Berg & Causey, 2014; Carey, 2016).

In summary, while the literature affirms EAL’s potential for developing relational and emotional leadership competencies, there is a notable gap in systematic reviews that consolidate these findings within the context of organizational leadership. Empirical research remains fragmented, with few studies assessing EAL’s comparative effectiveness against conventional methods or evaluating its long-term impact on leadership outcomes. This review addresses these gaps by synthesizing the current evidence and exploring practical implications for integrating EAL into organizational leadership programs.

This review makes a distinctive contribution by synthesizing insights from leadership theory, experiential learning frameworks, and equine-assisted interventions to position EAL within organizational leadership development. Unlike prior studies that focus primarily on therapeutic benefits or present anecdotal evidence from isolated programs, this paper consolidates conceptual and empirical findings to provide a structured, theoretically grounded understanding of EAL’s potential in workplace learning. Additionally, it identifies gaps in the literature and offers practical implications for integrating EAL into corporate training models, thereby bridging the divide between emerging embodied leadership practices and conventional development approaches.

3. Conclusions

In conclusion, this review highlights the potential of equine-assisted learning (EAL) as an innovative approach to leadership development, offering benefits such as enhanced emotional intelligence, adaptability, and trust building compared with traditional training methods. EAL fosters key leadership competencies such as emotional intelligence, adaptability, and trust building by engaging participants in experiential, relational, and embodied learning processes. For example, empirical studies by Stock and Kolb (2016) and Sivagurunathan et al. (2024a) demonstrate that EAL significantly enhances self-awareness, nonverbal communication, and team collaboration through structured ground-based exercises and trust-building activities. Similarly, Gehrke et al. (2018) report measurable improvements in leaders’ ability to regulate emotions and respond effectively in dynamic environments, underscoring the practical relevance of EAL for organizational contexts.

Organizations striving for continuous performance improvement and a competitive edge can benefit significantly from integrating EAL into their leadership development initiatives. This study suggests actionable steps for organizations to incorporate EAL into existing programs, such as partnering with certified EAL practitioners, designing custom equine-assisted workshops, and embedding these activities into broader leadership curricula. Moreover, aligning EAL activities with organizational goals ensures relevance and practical application.

The research also underscores the metaphorical parallels between human leadership and horse interactions, demonstrating how EAL fosters core leadership competencies like emotional intelligence, decision making, and adaptability. By integrating EAL into leadership development, organizations can create dynamic, engaging, and reflective learning experiences that address the complex challenges of modern leadership.

4. Limitations and Further Research

The findings in this study suggest that EAL offers significant benefits in cultivating leadership competencies, particularly through metaphorical and practical interactions with horses. However, while the advantages of EAL are well documented, it is essential to acknowledge the challenges associated with its broader implementation.

This review has several limitations that also point to future research opportunities. The most significant limitations identified are, first, the lack of longitudinal studies that assess the sustainability of leadership outcomes over time, and second, the limited generalizability of findings due to small and context-specific samples. These issues significantly restrict the evidence base for EAL in organizational leadership development. Additional challenges include methodological inconsistencies across studies and the scarcity of research comparing EAL with traditional leadership development approaches.

These research directions stem from key gaps identified in this review, particularly the limited number of empirical studies assessing EAL’s impact in corporate leadership contexts and the absence of standardized evaluation frameworks. For example, most reviewed studies are small-scale and qualitative, with scarce longitudinal data on sustained leadership outcomes, highlighting the need for rigorous, comparative, and quantitative research to validate the effectiveness of EAL against traditional development approaches. Addressing these limitations will help establish EAL as an evidence-based method and enhance its integration into mainstream leadership training programs.

Additionally, future research should also include comparative studies that evaluate EAL against other established leadership development methods such as traditional classroom training, executive coaching, and mentoring. Such comparisons would provide greater clarity on the unique value and potential integration of EAL within broader organizational learning strategies. Addressing these limitations will help establish EAL as an evidence-based method and enhance its integration into mainstream leadership training programs.

Practitioners and organizations are encouraged to collaborate with academic researchers to co-design studies that reflect practical challenges and organizational priorities. For example, incorporating EAL sessions into existing leadership training modules and assessing their impact compared with traditional methods can provide valuable comparative data.

Finally, researchers should explore ways to standardize EALD practices, including curriculum design, facilitator qualifications, and program delivery methods. Doing so would enhance the legitimacy and scalability of EAL as a leadership development tool, ensuring broader adoption across diverse organizational contexts.