Reimagining Public Service Delivery: Digitalising Initiatives for Accountability and Efficiency

Abstract

This study examines the critical success factors for digital transformation in South Africa’s public services, where systemic inefficiency, corruption, and limited transparency have eroded public trust. Using a PRISMA-guided systematic literature review of 64 studies, this study synthesises evidence on digital governance challenges and opportunities through the lenses of New Public Management and Digital-Era Governance, complemented by value co-creation and a citizen-centred design. The analysis shows that transformation efforts often falter because of infrastructure deficits, bureaucratic resistance, and policy misalignment. Successful initiatives rest on five mutually reinforcing pillars: (1) coherent policy and regulatory frameworks; (2) equitable and reliable digital infrastructure; (3) committed leadership with sustained institutional capacity-building; (4) meaningful citizen engagement via co-design and co-production; and (5) data-enabled accountability and process efficiency. Persistent barriers include disparities in access and digital skills across municipalities, cybersecurity vulnerabilities, and legacy–system incompatibilities that impede end-to-end integration. This study proposes an implementation framework that aligns technical solutions with governance reforms, such as depoliticised administration, performance-based accountability, and localised service customization to enhance operational efficiency and rebuild trust. It concludes that bridging the digital divide and embedding context-sensitive, participatory, and ethically grounded approaches are essential for sustainable digital transformation in South Africa’s unequal socioeconomic landscape.

1. Introduction

Public service delivery has evolved over the past two decades, driven by technological advancements and evolving governance paradigms. Traditional bureaucratic models, marked by hierarchical decision-making and manual paper-based processes, tended to produce inefficiencies and weak accountability (Pollitt & Bouckaert, 2017). Digitalisation has introduced transformative possibilities, redefining how governments engage citizens and manage resources, particularly in developing-country contexts where service delivery challenges are most acute.

Digital public services leverage technology to enhance transparency, efficiency, and citizen engagement (Kahn et al., 2018; Gherghin, 2025). Beyond streamlining administrative processes, they can enable participatory governance through real-time feedback and co-production channels (Heeks, 2001). Yet adoption and impact vary significantly across countries, shaped by institutional capacity, infrastructure readiness, and socioeconomic conditions. These divergences highlight the need for a systematic examination of how digitalisation is conceptualised, implemented and evaluated within specific socio-political contexts.

Exploring digital public service transformation in South Africa is especially salient given the legacy of apartheid and ongoing efforts to reduce inequality. Unlike many developing countries where digitalisation is driven primarily by efficiency goals, South Africa foregrounds inclusion and equity, exemplified by the Batho Pele (“People First”) principles (Republic of South Africa, 2012). Nonetheless, pronounced urban–rural digital divides continue to hinder equitable access to services (Statistics South Africa, 2023a).

In the post-apartheid era, governance goals in South Africa extend beyond efficiency, linking digitalisation to redressing historical injustices and advancing social inclusion. Rather than a narrow administrative focus, digital reforms explicitly seek to dismantle apartheid-era exclusions and promote equity (Nyahodza & Higgs, 2017; Republic of South Africa, 2012). This dual focus on service performance and social justice shows how digital governance can operate as a vehicle for transformation.

South Africa’s hybrid development profile combines the assets of a middle-income economy with the constraints of a developing one. Its major cities benefit from advanced infrastructure, a robust financial sector, and relatively high internet penetration, yet deep inequalities, rural infrastructure gaps, and persistent digital divides limit access for many communities (Statistics South Africa, 2023b). This duality mirrors Africa’s broader pattern of uneven development, positioning South Africa as a representative case for balancing digital expansion with inclusion.

South Africa has often set the continental pace in digital governance. Early e-government strategies, the establishment of the State Information Technology Agency (SITA), and the integration of digital reforms into national development plans have positioned it as a regional trailblazer (Mantzaris & Pillay, 2019). Its mixed record across tax administration, social grants, and municipal services offers transferable lessons for policy design, regional learning, and capacity-building, while clarifying both success factors and barriers to sustainable transformation.

1.1. South Africa’s Digital Transformation Context and Challenges

Ambitious policies have propelled South Africa’s digitalisation, yet implementation gaps expose deeper structural constraints. The digital agenda emerged from the need to improve service delivery beyond traditional bureaucratic models. After the 1994 democratic transition, a fragmented public service required consolidation and restructuring (Chipkin & Lipietz, 2012). Early reforms pursued administrative unification and more effective governance, with technology becoming increasingly central to achieving efficiency and scale.

South Africa’s National Development Plan 2030 (adopted in 2012) prioritised digitalisation to build a capable state and reduce inequality, but progress has been uneven. The South African Revenue Service’s (SARS) eFiling platform stands out, processing over seven million returns annually and reporting 95% user satisfaction (SARS, 2023). By contrast, sectors such as health face persistent implementation delays, and many municipalities still depend on outdated, paper-based systems.

South Africa’s digitalisation trajectory is distinctive for its high policy ambition alongside persistent governance constraints. Unlike high-income contexts that optimise for efficiency or lower-income contexts focused on basic access, South Africa must concurrently redress historical exclusions, strengthen institutional capacity, and improve service quality. The result is a complex reform landscape shaped by resource limits, competing priorities, and political pressures in the post-apartheid state.

South Africa’s three-sphere, cooperative governance system complicates progress: Initiatives must align across national, provincial, and municipal levels with uneven capacities. Metropolitan municipalities tend to have more advanced IT infrastructure, while many rural areas face severe constraints. Deep inequalities persist, with millions lacking reliable electricity, internet access, or digital literacy (Statistics South Africa, 2023c). Digitalisation must therefore not only modernise the government but also enable meaningful citizen engagement with digital services.

Despite growing interest in South Africa’s digitalisation, notable knowledge gaps persist. Comparative evidence on the performance of digital initiatives across provinces and municipalities, each with varying capacities, remains limited. The relationship between digitalisation and citizen empowerment, especially in marginalised communities, is underexplored. Moreover, the intersections with governance challenges, such as corruption risks, skills shortages, and weak intergovernmental coordination, warrant further study. Accordingly, this study investigates the digitalisation of public service delivery in South Africa and addresses three questions: (1) How have digitalisation strategies been formulated and implemented across provincial and municipal spheres? (2) Which institutional, infrastructural, capacity, and social barriers hinder effective and equitable digital service delivery? (3) How can digital initiatives be designed to strengthen accountability and inclusivity within South Africa’s specific governance context?

1.2. Theoretical Framework

This study is grounded in two influential governance paradigms that have shaped public sector reforms worldwide: New Public Management (NPM) and Digital-Era Governance (DEG). NPM, developed by Hood (1991) and Osborne and Gaebler (1992), recast citizens as customers, prioritised quantifiable outputs and user satisfaction, and revolutionised public administration with market-oriented tools such as decentralisation, performance management, and private sector practices (Pollitt & Bouckaert, 2017). In South Africa, NPM-inspired reforms sought to remedy bureaucratic inefficiencies; however, critics (e.g., Dunleavy & Hood, 1994) contend that an efficiency-first orientation can exacerbate inequalities by sidelining equity concerns (see also Chipkin & Lipietz, 2012). Against this backdrop, DEG offers a complementary lens focused on digitally enabled, integrated, and citizen-centred services.

Digital-Era Governance (DEG) emerged in response to these limitations. Dunleavy et al. (2006) outline a model on end-to-end digital integration, citizen-centred services, and data-driven decision-making, later expanded by Margetts (2009) and Mergel (2013). Unlike NPM’s incremental reforms, DEG promotes a holistic transformation that reintegrates fragmented services and confronts the persistent digital divide that constrains access and performance across population groups (Ngcamu & Mantzaris, 2021; Mkhize et al., 2024). This digital turn offers a pertinent lens for understanding South Africa’s e-government trajectory.

Despite the shift toward DEG, NPM’s imprint endures through entrenched performance regimes (Hood, 1991). DEG’s integrative promise is constrained by digital exclusion (Heeks, 2001), institutional resistance (Meier & Bolívar, 2020), and NPM-era competitive tendering that fosters project silos. Whole-of-government approaches aim to defragment services, yet tensions between metric-driven accountability and comprehensive service outcomes remain unresolved. Scholars emphasise the need to adapt these models to South Africa, where historical inequalities and infrastructure deficits complicate the reality (Bailur, 2007; Van der Waldt, 2020). The coexistence of progressive digital policies with persistent delivery failures underscores these contradictions (Mantzaris & Pillay, 2019). Moreover, NPM’s devolutionary logic often clashes with DEG’s reliance on centralised platforms, leaving officials to juggle performance targets alongside cross-government collaboration.

At the intersection of these paradigms, this study advances Accountable Digital Governance” (ADG), a framework that fuses NPM’s efficiency ethos with DEG’s technological integration while embedding context-sensitive adaptation for post-colonial African states. ADG recognises that, in South Africa, digital transformation must be grounded in socio-political realities and that technology without institutional reform cannot deliver inclusion (H. C. A. Cloete, 2023). Rejecting the uncritical importation of northern governance models, ADG centres around equity and accountability, directly confronting the “digital paradox,” whereby technological gains risk reproducing or deepening existing inequalities (Manda & Dhaou, 2019; Mutula & Mostert, 2022).

2. Methodology

2.1. Design

This systematic literature review (SLR) synthesises existing knowledge on digitalising public service delivery from 64 studies (see

Table A1. Characteristics of reviewed studies.

S/N	References (APA)	Study Design/Theories Used	Emerging Themes	Findings/Discussion
1	(Dlamini et al., 2022) Dlamini, D., Worku, Z., & Muchie, M. (2022). Improving service delivery in the South African public sector. International Journal of Applied Science and Research, 5(6), 153–161.	Framework: Bao et al. (2013) & Pretorius and Schurink (2007) leadership model. Method: Qualitative, theoretical model development.	Leadership, Values, and Institutional Processes	The study proposes an integrated model combining leadership, core values, and institutional processes to improve service delivery. The findings suggest that contextual adaptation of this model can enhance public sector performance. The discussion emphasises its utility as a management tool but highlights challenges in implementation due to bureaucratic resistance.
2	(Ndebele & Lavhelani, 2017) Ndebele, C., & Lavhelani, P. N. (2017). Local government and quality service delivery: An evaluation of municipal service delivery in a local municipality in Limpopo Province. Journal of Public Administration, 52(2), 340–358.	Method: Qualitative questionnaires (open-ended). Sample: 25 participants (municipal staff and community).	Financial Constraints, Revenue Generation	Financial dependency on national grants severely limits service delivery. The study finds that municipalities lack sustainable revenue streams, leading to service backlogs. The discussion advocates local revenue generation strategies, such as public–private partnerships, to reduce reliance on central funding and improve fiscal autonomy.
3	(Ngoepe, 2014) Ngoepe, M. (2014). Records management models in the public sector in South Africa: Is there a flicker of light at the end of the dark tunnel? Information Development, 32(3), 1–12.	Method: Quantitative questionnaires to record practitioners.	Records Management, Institutional Efficiency	Poor record management systems contribute to inefficiencies in public service delivery. The findings reveal a lack of standardised models, leading to disorganisation. The discussion proposes a customisable record management framework to enhance transparency and accountability, arguing that proper documentation is critical for governance and service delivery audits.
4	(Qobo & Nyathi, 2016) Qobo, M., & Nyathi, N. (2016). Ubuntu, public policy ethics and tensions in South Africa’s foreign policy. South African Journal of International Affairs, 23(4), 421–436.	Method: Qualitative policy analysis.	Ubuntu Ethics, Policy–Practice Dissonance	While Ubuntu is rhetorically championed, its application in policy is inconsistent. The findings highlight a gap between ethical ideals and practical implementation. The discussion calls for institutionalising Ubuntu in governance frameworks to align policy actions with communal values, fostering trust and equity in service delivery.
5	(Reddy, 2016) Reddy, P. S. (2016). The politics of service delivery in South Africa: The local government sphere in context. Journal of Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa, 12(1), 1–10.	Method: Qualitative literature review.	Politicisation, Bureaucratic Inefficiency	The politicisation of local government undermines administrative efficiency. The findings indicate that political interference disrupts service delivery planning. The discussion advocates depoliticising municipal administrations to ensure merit-based decision-making, emphasising the need for a clear separation between political and administrative roles.
6	(Smoke, 2015) Smoke, P. (2015). Rethinking decentralisation: Assessing challenges to a popular public sector reform. Public Administration and Development, 35(4), 263–278.	Method: Theoretical review.	Decentralisation Challenges, Governance Gaps	Decentralisation often fails due to poor design and a lack of local capacity. The findings show that without adequate resources, decentralised governance leads to inefficiencies. The discussion recommends context-specific decentralisation models, stressing the need for capacity-building and fiscal support to empower local governments.
7	(Moyo, 2015) Moyo, S. (2015). Creating a framework for sustainable service delivery: An analysis of North West Province, South Africa municipalities. North-West University (PhD Thesis).	Method: Mixed methods (quantitative and qualitative). Sample: 340 participants.	Resource Scarcity, Skills Shortages	Municipalities face severe resource and skills shortages, hindering service delivery. The findings reveal systemic governance failures and financial mismanagement. The discussion proposes capacity-building programs and economic development initiatives to create sustainable service delivery frameworks, emphasising the need for skilled leadership.
8	(Munzhedzi, 2016) Munzhedzi, P. H. (2016). South African public sector procurement and corruption: Inseparable twins? Journal of Transport and Supply Chain Management, 10(1), 1–8.	Method: Qualitative policy analysis.	Corruption, Procurement Malpractices	Corruption in public procurement diverts resources from service delivery. The findings link the weak enforcement of PFMA/MFMA to fraudulent practices. The discussion calls for stricter oversight, transparent tender processes, and harsh offender penalties to restore public trust and ensure equitable resource allocation.
9	(Masiya et al., 2019) Masiya, T., Davids, Y. D., & Mangai, M. S. (2019). Assessing service delivery: Public perception of municipal service delivery in South Africa. Theoretical and Empirical Researches in Urban Management, 14(2), 20–40.	Method: Quantitative survey (Social Attitude Survey).	Citizen Dissatisfaction, Inequality	Public dissatisfaction stems from unfulfilled promises and unequal service access. The findings correlate protests with perceived deprivation. The discussion urges municipalities to prioritise equitable distribution and community engagement to address historical disparities and improve service delivery outcomes.
10	(Maloba, 2015) Maloba, D. M. (2015). Monitoring good governance in South African local government and its implications for institutional development and service delivery. University of the Western Cape (PhD Thesis).	Method: Case study (City of Cape Town).	Accountability, Institutional Weaknesses	Weak accountability mechanisms compromise governance. The findings highlight poor oversight and financial mismanagement. The discussion recommends strengthening audit systems and stakeholder engagement to enhance transparency and service delivery efficiency.
11	(Hofisi & Pooe, 2017) Hofisi, C., & Pooe, T. (2017). New Public Management Issues in South Africa. In New Public Management in Africa (pp. 23–45). Routledge.	Method: A literature review.	NPM Reforms, Implementation Gaps	NPM reforms improved financial management but face adoption challenges. The findings reveal disparities in implementation across sectors. The discussion suggests tailoring NPM to South Africa’s context, emphasising performance-based accountability and skills development.
12	(Maramura, 2016) Maramura, T. C. (2016). Towards the implementation of Public–Private Partnerships (PPPS) for efficient service delivery in public institutions in South Africa. Journal of Human Ecology, 54(2), 119–123.	Method: Qualitative, secondary data analysis.	PPPs, Service Delivery Innovation	PPPs can mitigate service delivery gaps, but this requires robust regulation. The findings show that successful PPPs enhance infrastructure development. The discussion advocates clear legal frameworks to govern partnerships and ensure mutual accountability.
13	(Ajam & Fourie, 2016) Ajam, T., & Fourie, D. J. (2016). Public financial management reform in South African provincial basic education departments. Public Administration & Development, 36(4), 263–282.	Method: Quantitative PFM index analysis.	PFM Reforms, Leadership Stability	PFMA improved financial governance, but provincial disparities persist. The findings link progress to stable leadership and skilled personnel. The discussion underscores the need for continuous training and audit compliance to sustain reforms.
14	(Díaz Fuentes et al., 2014) Díaz Fuentes, D., Clifton, J., & Alonso, J. M. (2014). Did New Public Management Matter? An empirical analysis of the effects of outsourcing and decentralisation on public sector size. Public Management Review, 17(5), 643–660.	Method: Quantitative, cross-country analysis.	NPM Effectiveness, Decentralisation Impact	Decentralisation reduced the public sector’s size, but outsourcing did not. The findings question NPM’s universal applicability. The discussion highlights the need for context-specific reforms aligned with local governance structures.
15	(Nkoana et al., 2024) Nkoana, I., Selelo, M. E., & Mashamaite, K. A. (2024). Public administration and public service delivery in South Africa: A sacrifice of effective service delivery to political interests. African Journal of Public Administration and Environmental Studies, 3(1).	Method: Systematic literature review.	Political Interference, Cadre Deployment	Political appointments undermine service delivery. The findings reveal corruption and inefficiency due to patronage. The discussion calls for anti-corruption measures, merit-based hiring, and enhanced transparency to restore governance integrity.
16	(Masuku & Jili, 2022) Masuku, M. M., & Jili, N. N. (2022). Public service delivery in South Africa: The political influence at the local government level. Academic Paper.	Method: Qualitative case study.	Meritocracy vs. Patronage	The politicisation of administration breeds inefficiency. The findings show that favouritism hampers equitable service delivery. The discussion advocates depoliticising municipal appointments and adopting performance-based evaluations to improve governance.
17	(Mkhize et al., 2024) Mkhize, N. E., Kayembe, C., & Thusi, X. (2024). South Africa’s service delivery in the 4IR era: The need for responsible leadership. Africa’s Public Service Delivery & Performance Review, 12(1), a767. https://doi.org/10.4102/apsdpr.v12i1.767	Method: Qualitative literature review. Theoretical Lens: Responsible leadership.	4IR Technologies, Ethical Leadership, Public Sector Ethics	The findings indicate that poor leadership exacerbates service delivery failures. The discussion advocates ethical frameworks to guide 4IR integration, ensuring that technology benefits are equitably distributed.
18	(Mbandlwa, 2023) Mbandlwa, Z. (2023). Professionalisation of public service delivery in the Southern African region. Sustainable Development Goals Journal, 11(10). https://doi.org/10.55908/sdgs.v11i10.1797	Method: Secondary data analysis.	Professionalisation, Anti-Corruption, Citizen-Centric Services	The study reveals that political interference undermines professionalism. Recommendations include training programs and accountability mechanisms to restore public trust.
19	(Ruwanika & Maramura, 2024) Ruwanika, J. M., & Maramura, T. C. (2024). Role of service providers in ensuring effective service delivery in Mangaung Metropolitan Municipality. Cogent Business & Management, 11(1), 2315695. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2024.2315695	Method: Qualitative case study (semi-structured interviews).	Supply Chain Management, Corruption Mitigation, Capacity-Building	The findings show that corruption in procurement hampers efficiency. The discussion recommends stricter oversight and training for SCM personnel to enhance accountability.
20	(Thusi & Selepe, 2023) Thusi, X., & Selepe, M. M. (2023). The impact of poor governance on public service delivery: A case study of the South African local government. International Journal of Social Science Research and Review, 6(4), 688–697. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370402760_The_Impact_of_Poor_Governance_on_Public_Service_Delivery_A_Case_Study_of_the_South_African_Local_Government	Method: Case study, qualitative.	Accountability Deficiencies, Financial Mismanagement, Community Protests	Poor financial management (only 41/257 clean audits) fuels public discontent. The study calls for enhanced oversight and participatory governance.
21	(Akinboade et al., 2014) Akinboade, O. A., Mokwena, M. P., & Kinfack, E. C. (2014). Protesting for improved public service delivery in South Africa’s Sedibeng District. Social Indicators Research, 119(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0377-9	Method: Quantitative (Social Attitude Survey).	Citizen Dissatisfaction, Inequality, Post-Apartheid Legacies	High dissatisfaction stems from uneven access to services. The discussion urges equitable resource allocation and community engagement.
22	(Masuku et al., 2022) Masuku, M. M., Mlambo, V. H., & Ndlovu, C. (2022). Service delivery, governance and citizen satisfaction: Reflections from South Africa. Journal of Governance and Development, 11(1), 1–20. DOI:10.14666/2194-7759-11-1-6	Method: Secondary data (StatsSA reports). Theory: New Public Service.	Trust Deficits, Inequitable Development, Informal Settlements	Despite policy efforts, citizen trust remains low. Recommendations include holistic development plans to bridge service gaps.
23	(Gegana & Phahlane, 2024) Gegana, S., & Phahlane, M. (2024). Techniques for effective government service delivery. South African Journal of Information Management, 26(1), a1782. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajim.v26i1.1782	Method: Qualitative case study (interviews). Theory: Institutional theory.	E-Participation, Open Government, ICT Policy Gaps	The lack of ICT policies hinders e-governance. The study recommends apps for real-time feedback to improve transparency.
24	(Shibambu & Ngoepe, 2024) Shibambu, A., & Ngoepe, M. (2024). Enhancing service delivery through digital transformation in the public sector in South Africa. Global Knowledge, Memory and Communication, 74(11).	Method: Qualitative (interviews with CIOs).	Digital Transformation, Legislative Gaps, Strategic Implementation—Identifies inconsistent digital adoption due to weak legislation and strategy.	The findings reveal ad hoc digital initiatives. Practical implications include standardised frameworks for nationwide rollout.
25	(Nkgapele, 2024) Nkgapele, S. M. (2024). The usability of e-government as a mechanism to enhance public service delivery in the South African government. International Journal of Social Science Research, 3(1).	Method: Qualitative (secondary data).	Digital Divide, ICT Skills Shortages, Resistance to Change—Examines barriers to e-government (e.g., literacy, infrastructure) and suggests corrective measures.	Progress is evident, but rural areas lag behind. The study calls for infrastructure investment and digital literacy programs.
26	(Galushi & Malatji, 2022) Galushi, L. T., & Malatji, T. L. (2022). Digital public administration and inclusive governance at the South African local government. African Journal of Information Systems, 11(6). https://doi.org/10.36941/ajis-2022-0154	Method: Empirical study.	4IR Adaptation, Rural Exclusion, Ethical E-Governance—Highlights risks of excluding poor communities from digital services during COVID-19.	E-governance benefits are urban-centric. Recommendations include subsidised rural ICT access.
27	(Kariuki et al., 2019) Kariuki, P., Ofusori, L. O., & Goyayi, M. (2019). E-government and citizen experiences in South Africa: Ethekwini Metropolitan case study. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Theory and Practice of Electronic Governance, 1–8. DOI:10.1145/3326365.3326432	Method: Mixed methods (interviews + surveys).	Political Will, Internet Accessibility, Socioeconomic Barriers—Attributes low e-government priority to lack of leadership and infrastructure.	Citizens face access challenges. The study urges metro-wide digital inclusion strategies.
28	(Malomane, 2021) Malomane, A. P. (2021). The role of e-governance as an alternative service delivery mechanism in local government [Master’s thesis]. University of Johannesburg. https://hdl.handle.net/10210/501114	Method: Qualitative (conceptual analysis).	24/7 Service Availability, Digital Literacy, Infrastructure Gaps—Proposes ICT-enabled ASD to overcome service delivery bottlenecks.	E-governance success hinges on accessibility and literacy. Libraries/schools should serve as ICT hubs.
29	(Mohale, 2024) Mohale, C. (2024). The role of e-government in promoting municipal service delivery in South Africa. International Journal of Social Science Research and Review, 7(3). https://doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v7i3.1992	Method: Qualitative (secondary data).	Rural ICT Deficits, Multilingual Content, 4IR Readiness—Advocates localised digital solutions to bridge urban–rural divides.	Poor communities lack ICT access. The study recommends multilingual platforms and infrastructure grants.
30	(Mohlala, 2023) Mohlala, L. T. (2023). The factors hindering the successful implementation of e-government within the City of Johannesburg [Master’s thesis]. University of Johannesburg. https://hdl.handle.net/10210/505233	Method: Qualitative (case study).	Digital Illiteracy, Corruption, and Institutional Weaknesses—Identifies political and socioeconomic barriers to e-governance in metros.	Corruption and illiteracy impede implementation. Solutions include anti-fraud systems and adult education programs.
31	(Koma & Tshiyoyo, 2015) Koma, S. B., & Tshiyoyo, M. M. (2015). Improving public service delivery in South Africa: A case of administrative reform. University of Pretoria Institutional Repository. http://hdl.handle.net/2263/52466	Method: Document review, literature review.	Administrative Reform, Presidential Initiatives, Institutional Blockages	Findings reveal structural inefficiencies in policy implementation. The discussion calls for depoliticised reforms to enhance accountability and service quality.
32	(Nkoana et al., 2024) Nkoana, I., Selelo, M. E., & Mashamaite, K. A. (2024). Public administration and public service delivery in South Africa: A sacrifice of effective service delivery to political interests. African Journal of Public Administration and Environmental Studies, 3(1). https://hdl.handle.net/10520/ejc-aa_ajopaes_v3_n1_a4	Method: Systematic literature review.	Political Interference, Cadre Deployment, Governance Failures	Political appointments lead to inefficiency and corruption. Recommendations include anti-corruption measures and merit-based hiring to restore public trust.
33	(Mlambo, 2019) Mlambo, D. N. (2019). Governance and service delivery in the public sector: The case of South Africa under Jacob Zuma (2009–2018). African Renaissance, 16(3). https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC-1834727f56	Method: Qualitative, historical analysis.	Corruption, ANC Governance, Elite Capture	Elite enrichment exacerbates poverty. The study urges institutional reforms to break patronage networks.
34	(Sebake & Sebola, 2014) Sebake, B. K., & Sebola, M. P. (2014). Growing trends and tendencies of corruption in the South African public service: Negative contribution to service delivery. Journal of Public Administration, 49(3). https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC164774	Method: Qualitative policy analysis.	Supply Chain Corruption, Nepotism, Accountability Deficits	Corruption in procurement worsens service backlogs. Recommendations include transparent bidding and stricter enforcement of PFMA/MFMA.
35	(Manyaka & Sebola, 2012) Manyaka, R. K., & Sebola, M. P. (2012). Impact of performance management on service delivery in the South African public service. Journal of Public Administration, 47(si-1). https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC121939	Method: Policy review.	Performance Management, Employee Productivity, Legislative Frameworks	Poor performance management persists despite legislative frameworks. The study calls for continuous skills development and monitoring.
36	(Maramura et al., 2019) Maramura, T. C., Nzewi, O. I., & Tirivangasi, H. M. (2019). Mandelafying the public service in South Africa: Towards a new theory. Journal of Public Affairs, 19(4), e1982. https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.1982	Method: Theoretical analysis.	Ethical Leadership, Ubuntu, Public Trust	Service delivery protests reflect eroded trust—the discussion advocates values-driven governance reforms.
37	(Biljohn & Lues, 2020) Biljohn, M. I. M., & Lues, L. (2020). Citizen participation, social innovation, and local government service delivery governance: Findings from South Africa. International Journal of Public Administration, 43(3), 229–241. https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2019.1628052	Method: A case study.	Social Innovation, Participatory Governance, Open Systems—Explores how citizen engagement can co-create solutions for service delivery.	Top–down approaches fail. The study highlights the need for inclusive, community-driven innovation.
38	(Sindane & Nambalirwa, 2012) Sindane, A. M., & Nambalirwa, S. (2012). Governance and public leadership: The missing links in service delivery in South Africa. Journal of Public Administration, 47(3). https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC129628	Method: Qualitative literature review.	Leadership Vacuum, Protest Governance, Multistakeholder Solutions—These attributes are attributed to weak leadership and fragmented governance.	Protests demand holistic solutions. Recommendations include collaborative forums for community–government dialogue.
39	(Akinboade et al., 2014) Akinboade, O. A., Mokwena, M. P., & Kinfack, E. C. (2014). Protesting for improved public service delivery in South Africa’s Sedibeng District. Social Indicators Research, 119(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-014-0781-9	Method: Mixed methods (survey + interviews).	Service Satisfaction, Age/Regional Disparities, Municipal Governance—Links low satisfaction to governance gaps and unmet promises.	Youth and rural areas are the most dissatisfied. The study urges tailored service delivery and accountability mechanisms.
40	(Muthien, 2014) Muthien, Y. (2014). Public service reform: Key challenges of execution. Strategic Review for Southern Africa, 36(2), 137–140.	Method: Policy analysis.	Skills Deficit, Semi-Privatisation, Integrated Models—Critiques NPM’s uneven success and calls for coherent administrative models.	Fragmented reforms hinder delivery. The study proposes a re-engineered public service with standardised skills audits.
41	(Madumo, 2016) Madumo, O. S. (2016). De-politicisation of service delivery in local government: Prospects for development in South Africa. African Journal of Public Affairs, 9(3). http://hdl.handle.net/2263/58220	Method: Conceptual analysis.	Depoliticisation, Professionalisation, Administrative Autonomy—Advocates separating politics from administration to improve services.	Political interference breeds inefficiency. Recommendations include merit-based appointments and clear role demarcation.
42	(Koelble & LiPuma, 2010) Koelble, T. A., & LiPuma, E. (2010). Institutional obstacles to service delivery in South Africa. Social Dynamics, 36(3), 565–589. https://doi.org/10.1080/02533952.2010.518002	Method: Institutional analysis.	Skills Shortages, Policy Incoherence, Rural–Urban Divides	Rural municipalities struggle with implementation. The study calls for targeted skills development and enforcement of financial controls.
43	(Van Eeden & Khaba, 2016) Van Eeden, E. S., & Khaba, B. (2016). Politicising service delivery in South Africa: A reflection on the history, reality and fiction of Bekkersdal, 1949–2015. Journal for Contemporary History, 41(2). https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC-4fb2b2dba	Method: Historical analysis, interviews.	Historical Legacies, Mining Communities, Protest Narratives	Protests reflect unresolved historical grievances. The discussion emphasises inclusive development planning.
44	(Gumede & Dipholo, 2014) Gumede, N., & Dipholo, K. B. (2014). Governance, restructuring and the New Public Management reform: South African perspectives. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 4(6), 43–52. https://doi.org/10.5901/jesr.2014.v4n6p43	Method: Theoretical review.	NPM Hybridization, Colonial Legacies, Fiscal Reforms	NPM faces unique hurdles in SA. The study recommends context-sensitive reforms.
45	(Molobela & Uwizeyimana, 2023) Molobela, T. T., & Uwizeyimana, D. E. (2023). New public management and post-new public management paradigms: Deconstruction and reconfiguration of the South African public administration. International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science, 12(8), 327–334. https://doi.org/10.20525/ijrbs.v12i8.2941	Method: Qualitative, secondary data.	Post-NPM, Paradigm Shifts, Hybrid Governance	SA’s public administration needs adaptive models. The study suggests integrating NPM with developmental state principles.
46	(Munzhedzi, 2020) Munzhedzi, P. H. (2020). An evaluation of the application of the new public management principles in the South African municipalities. Journal of Public Affairs, 20(3), e2132. https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.2132	Method: A literature review.	NPM Implementation, Decentralisation Challenges, Municipal Capacity	NPM principles are poorly applied. Recommendations include capacity-building and anti-corruption measures.
47	(Mamokhere, 2022) Mamokhere, J. (2022). Understanding the Complex Interplay of Governance, Systematic, and Structural Factors Affecting Service Delivery in South African Municipalities. Commonwealth Youth and Development, 20(2). https://hdl.handle.net/10520/ejc-cydev-v20-n2-a2	Qualitative research using document analysis: New Public Management and Public Choice Theories	Governance Failures, Structural Constraints, Systemic Inequalities	The study reveals how corruption, political interference, and apartheid legacies combine to undermine service delivery. It recommends strengthening governance, citizen participation, and intergovernmental collaboration to address multifaceted challenges.
48	(Zerihun & Mashigo, 2022) Zerihun, M.F. & Mashigo, M.P. (2022). The quest for service delivery: The case of a rural district municipality in Mpumalanga. Africa’s Public Service Delivery and Performance Review, 10(1). https://hdl.handle.net/10520/ejc-apsdpr_v10_i1_a512	Mixed methods (survey of 120 respondents); Social Contract Theory	Rural Service Gaps, Payment Willingness, IDP Implementation	The study finds that residents are dissatisfied but willing to pay for improved services. It highlights the disconnect between municipal plans and implementation, recommending better IDP alignment with community needs.
49	(Maramura & Thakhathi, 2016) Maramura, T. C. & Thakhathi, D. R. (2016). Analysing e-governance policies in South Africa. Journal of Communication, 7(2), 241–245.	Descriptive policy analysis	E-Governance frameworks, Legislative Alignment, Digital Transformation	The study shows that post-1994 policies support e-governance, but implementation lags. It concludes that successful digital governance requires stronger legislative enforcement and institutional coordination.
50	(Sing, 2012) Sing, D. (2012). Building a unified public administration system in South Africa. Public Personnel Management, 41(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/009102601204100309	Policy analysis	Integrated Governance, Developmental State, Cross-sector Collaboration	The study argues for a coordinated three-tier government approach to service delivery. It highlights the 2008 Public Administration Management Bill as the key framework needing implementation support.
51	(Swart, 2013) Swart, I. (2013). South Africa’s service-delivery crisis: From contextual understanding to diaconal response. HTS Theological Studies, 69(2). https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC138610	Theological-practical analysis	Crisis Framing, Faith-Based Responses, Social Justice	The study compares the service delivery crisis to apartheid-era struggles. It proposes that faith-based organisations play a greater role in addressing systemic inequalities through community empowerment.
52	(Okafor, 2018) Okafor, C. (2018). Dysfunctional public administration in the era of rising expectations. Journal of Nation-building & Policy Studies, 2(1). https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC-134be1c8a7	Content/descriptive analysis	Administrative Dysfunction, Reform Fatigue, Nation-Building	The study links service failures to weak institutions and unfulfilled reforms. It recommends depoliticised administration and merit-based appointments to restore public trust.
53	(F. Cloete, 2012) Cloete, F. (2012). e-Government lessons from South Africa 2001–2011. African Journal of Information and Communication, 12. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC134065	Institutional assessment using Rorissa model	Digital Governance lag, Policy Stagnation, Measurement Frameworks	The study analyses why SA fell behind peers in e-government adoption. It identifies weak institutional arrangements and recommends improved e-barometer metrics for tracking progress.
54	(Twum-Darko et al., 2023) Twum-Darko, M., Ncede, N., & Tengeh, R. (2023). Stakeholder engagement in public sector strategy. International Journal of Research in Business & Social Science, 12(3), 109. https://doi.org/10.20525/ijrbs.v12i3.2361	Mixed-methods case study (WCED); Actor Network Theory	Participatory Governance, Network Alignment, Continuous Engagement	Structured stakeholder engagement improves service delivery. The study proposes ongoing community–government dialogue forums to align expectations and implementation.
55	(Franks, 2015) Franks, P. E. (2015). Training senior public servants in South Africa. Journal of Public Administration, 50(2). https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC183284	Policy review	Skills Deficit, Cadre Deployment, NDP Alignment	The study highlights the tension between political appointments and technical competence. It recommends NDP-guided training programs to professionalise bureaucracy amid political pressures.
56	(Mbandlwa et al., 2020) Mbandlwa, Z., Dorasamy, N., & Fagbadebo, O. (2020). Ethical leadership and service delivery challenges. Test Engineering & Management, 83, 24986–24998.	Theoretical discourse	Leadership Ethics, Corruption Linkage, Accountability	The study establishes a direct correlation between unethical leadership and poor service delivery. It calls for ethics training and stronger accountability mechanisms in public sector.
57	(Naidoo, 2012) Naidoo, G. (2012). Need for ethical leadership to curb corruption. Journal of Public Administration, 47(3). https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC129630	Literature review	Ethical Governance, Anti-Corruption Measures, Leadership Modelling	The study identifies procurement fraud as a major challenge. It advocates leaders to model ethical behaviour and strengthen oversight systems to restore public trust.
58	(Balkaran, 2018) Balkaran, S. (2018). Fourth Industrial Revolution Impact on the Public Sector. Walter Sisulu University.	Socio-evolution theory	Technological Disruption, Skills Transition, Digital Inequality	The study warns of 4IR exacerbating inequalities without proactive human capital investments. It recommends balanced technology adoption with social protection policies.
59	(Zondi & Reddy, 2016) Zondi & Reddy (2016). Constitutional mandate for participation. Administratio Publica, 24(3). https://journals.co.za/doi/10.10520/ejc-adminpub-v24-n3-a3	Mixed methods (iLembe District)	Participatory Governance, IDP Effectiveness, Protest Reduction	The study shows that proper public participation decreases service protests. It proposes a model for meaningful community engagement in municipal planning processes.
60	(Twala, 2014) Twala, C. (2014). Causes/impact of Service Delivery Protests. Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 39(2), 159.	Political analysis	Protest Politics, Basic Needs Backlogs, Accountability Deficits	The study links protests to the unfulfilled post-apartheid social contract. It argues that national–local government coordination is required to address structural inequalities.
61	(Matloga et al., 2024) Matloga, S. T., Mahole, E., & Nekhavhambe, M. M. (2024). Public participation challenges in Vhembe District. Journal of Local Government Research, 5(1). https://hdl.handle.net/10520/ejc-jolgri_v5_n1_a160	Mixed methods (15 participants)	Participation Fatigue, Trust Deficits, Capacity Gaps	The study finds communities disengaged due to broken promises. It recommends skills development for officials and traditional leaders to rebuild engagement.
62	(Rulashe & Ijeoma, 2022) Rulashe & Ijeoma (2022). Accountability in Buffalo City Metro. Africa’s Public Service Delivery, 10(1). https://hdl.handle.net/10520/ejc-apsdpr_v10_i1_a535	Mixed methods (47 participants)	Accountability Mechanisms, Communication Gaps, Implementation Failures	The study reveals a disconnect between policy and practice in accountability systems. It suggests strengthening Public Participation Units and community oversight structures.
63	(Nzimakwe, 2023) Nzimakwe, T. I. (2023). SOE procurement and service delivery. African Journal of Public Affairs, 14(1). https://hdl.handle.net/10520/ejc-ajpa_v14_n1_a2	Literature review	State Capture, Procurement Maladministration, Governance Failures	The study exposes how corruption in SOEs undermines economic development. It calls for transparent procurement systems insulated from political interference.
64	(Kumalo & Scheepers, 2021) Kumalo & Scheepers (2021). Leadership in public sector turnarounds. Journal of Organisational Change Management, 34(1).	Qualitative (11 executive interviews)	Crisis Leadership, Turnaround Phases, Authentic Leadership	The study identifies four critical turnaround phases requiring different leadership approaches. It emphasises the need for strong individual leadership during the initial crisis stages.

in the Appendix A). Adhering to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines (Page et al., 2021) and the methodological framework established by Kitchenham and Charters (2007) for systematic reviews in software engineering, this review uses a structured protocol specifically designed for interdisciplinary research across public administration and digital governance domains. The research design incorporates qualitative and quantitative studies to capture the dimensions of digital governance initiatives across various institutional contexts. The systematic approach follows a five-phase process, (1) planning and protocol development, (2) a comprehensive literature search, (3) study selection and screening, (4) data extraction and quality assessment, and (5) synthesis and analysis, ensuring methodological transparency and replicability.

2.2. Search Strategy

A preliminary scoping exercise was conducted to refine the search terms and parameters. Database selection was guided by disciplinary relevance and coverage. Web of Science and Scopus were selected as core repositories due to their extensive peer-reviewed publications in governance and public administration. EBSCO and ProQuest were included to encompass interdisciplinary contributions within the social sciences. IEEE Xplore and ACM Digital Library were intentionally added to provide perspectives on digital governance, particularly in areas such as system architecture, cybersecurity, and technological implementation challenges, which are often underrepresented in traditional databases of public administration, social sciences, and management. While these two databases yielded only five studies that met the study’s inclusion criteria, they offered unique insights into the technological dimensions of digital governance, which strengthened the thematic analysis of public service digitalisation.

Google Scholar was used as a supplementary source to capture potentially overlooked studies. To ensure transparency and rigour, strict quality controls were applied. Specifically, advanced search operators (e.g., intitle:, site:, and quotation marks for exact phrases) were employed to filter results. Only peer-reviewed journal articles were considered, and all entries were cross-checked against institutional databases (Web of Science, Scopus, and ProQuest) to verify publication legitimacy. Non-peer-reviewed outputs, such as conference proceedings, working papers, or theses, were systematically excluded. These measures ensured that Google Scholar expanded coverage without compromising methodological rigour or reproducibility.

The final Boolean search string, (“digital*” OR “e-government” OR “e-governance” OR “electronic governance” OR “ICT” OR “4IR” OR “smart government” OR “digital transformation”) AND (“public service*” OR “government service*” OR “citizen service*” OR “municipal service*”) AND (“delivery” OR “implementation” OR “transformation” OR “reform” OR “capacity”) AND (“South Africa”), was consistently applied across all databases, with publication years restricted to 2010–2024 to reflect the contemporary evolution of digital governance. This approach ensured both breadth and depth while enhancing the transparency and reproducibility of our review process.

2.3. Selection Criteria

Studies were selected based on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria to ensure relevance and quality. The inclusion and exclusion criteria are presented in

Table A2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Inclusion Criteria	Exclusion Criteria
Peer-reviewed journal articles, conference proceedings, and book chapters	Non-peer-reviewed literature, opinion pieces, and editorials
Studies focusing on digitalisation in public service delivery	Studies focusing solely on technology without a public service application
Empirical research (quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods)	Purely theoretical papers without empirical evidence
Studies examining cases from South Africa	Studies not specifying geographical context
Publications in English	Publications in languages other than English
Studies published between January 2010 and March 2025	Studies published before 2010
Research examining institutional, technological, or social dimensions of digital service delivery	Research focusing exclusively on technical specifications
Studies addressing accountability, efficiency, or inclusivity aspects	Studies without clear governance implications

in Appendix A and in PRISMA 2020 (see Figure 1).

2.4. Study Selection Process

The study selection process followed a structured protocol with multiple screening phases. The initial search applied the search string across selected databases and potential studies. The title, abstract, and full text were screened against the inclusion/exclusion criteria. Studies were assessed for methodological rigour using a modified Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) tool, yielding a final sample of 64 studies (see Table A1). To ensure reliability, the inter-rater reliability was calculated using Cohen’s Kappa coefficient, yielding a value of 0.87, indicating strong agreement. The CASP was assessed against 10 criteria (see

Table 1. Quality assessment of studies using the modified CASP tool.

CASP Assessment Criteria	Studies Meeting Criterion (n = 64)	Percentage (%)	Notes
Clear statement of aims	60	93.8%	Assessed whether the study had focused research objectives
Appropriate methodology	59	92.2%	Evaluated if the research design matched the research aims
Research design is clearly explained	56	87.5%	Considered the clarity of the study design and justification
Recruitment strategy appropriate	53	82.8%	Looked at whether the sample was suitable for the research
Data collection is rigorously described	57	89.1%	Considered the appropriateness and detail of data collection methods
Reflexivity of researchers is considered	48	75.0%	Assessed if researchers discussed their potential bias and positioning
Ethical issues addressed	58	90.6%	Checked for ethical approval and informed consent procedures
Data analysis is sufficiently rigorous	55	85.9%	Examined the depth and transparency of analysis
Findings are presented and supported by evidence	61	95.3%	Assessed clarity and evidence backing conclusions
The value of the research is clearly stated	52	81.3%	Considered the implications and contributions of the study
Met minimum quality threshold (≥7 of 10 criteria)	64	100%	Studies scoring at least seven were included in the final review

Source: authors’ construction, 2025.

). Out of 64 studies assessed, most met CASP quality standards, with strong aims, methodology, ethics, and evidence, although reflexivity was the weakest metric. Notably, all studies reached the minimum inclusion threshold.

2.5. Data Extraction and Synthesis

A standardised data extraction form was developed to capture relevant information from each included study. The extracted data included bibliographic information (authors, year, journal), study context (country, region, institutional setting), methodological approach (design, sample, data collection, characteristics of digital initiatives (technologies, implementation strategies), outcomes (efficiency, accountability, inclusivity measures), and barriers and facilitators to practical implementation.

2.6. Thematic Analysis and Coding Process

Thematic analysis followed Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-phase approach: (1) familiarisation with data, (2) code generation, (3) theme identification, (4) theme review, (5) theme definition, and (6) reporting. Coding was carried out with the researchers coding the studies to ensure reliability (Cohen’s κ = 0.82). Both a priori codes, derived from theoretical frameworks, and emergent codes, derived from data immersion, were applied. Themes were identified based on their frequency across studies, their theoretical significance in the digital governance literature, and their practical relevance to public service delivery.

To improve transparency and validity, thematic analysis was performed using VOSviewer Version 1.6.20, which facilitated systematic coding and categorisation processes. This included co-occurrence analysis of key terms, keyword mapping, and thematic clustering to explore the relationships between studies and identify emerging patterns in the literature (see Section 3.2). Five main thematic clusters were identified through this manual analysis: technical implementation (23 studies), citizen engagement (18), organisational capacity (15), policy frameworks (12), and performance outcomes (16). Conceptual mapping further confirmed these clusters with clear thematic boundaries and internal coherence. The qualitative thematic techniques ensured methodological accuracy and improved analytical robustness. Final themes were kept if they appeared in at least 15% of studies, formed distinct thematic clusters, or reached theoretical saturation through iterative analysis and refinement.

2.7. Quality Assessment and Limitations

The methodological quality of the included studies was assessed using a modified version of the Mixed-Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) (Hong et al., 2018), which evaluates research across five quality dimensions (see

Table 2. The Mixed-Methods Appraisal quality dimension.

MMAT Quality Dimension	Studies Meeting Criterion	% of Included Studies (n = 64)	Description
Clarity of research questions	64	100%	Research questions were clearly stated and well defined
Appropriateness of methodology	61	95.3%	Methodological approach matched the study’s aim and design
Rigour of data collection	59	92.2%	Data collection was thorough, systematic, and well documented
Soundness of data analysis	57	89.1%	Analysis procedures were logically structured and justified
Coherence of findings with research questions	62	96.9%	Study findings were consistent and aligned with the stated objectives

Source: authors’ construction, 2025.

): the clarity of the research questions, the appropriateness of the methodology, the rigour of data collection, the soundness of analysis, and the coherence of the findings with the research questions. All 64 studies demonstrated clear research questions, robust methodology, meticulous data collection, sound analysis, and coherent findings, with quality scores ranging from 89.1% to 100% across MMAT dimensions.

Several limitations warrant acknowledgement. First, focusing on English-language publications may have excluded relevant studies from non-Anglophone regions. Second, the reliance on academic databases may have overlooked valuable grey literature. Third, the heterogeneity of methodological approaches and outcome measures across studies presented challenges for comparative analysis. Fourth, the bibliometric analysis was restricted to English-language publications, which may have underrepresented research from non-English-speaking contexts. These limitations were mitigated through supplementary searches of regional databases and consultation with subject matter experts to identify additional relevant sources.

3. Results

3.1. Description of Studies

This review synthesises 64 studies on South Africa’s public service delivery, spanning case studies, surveys, mixed-methods designs, and drawing on frameworks such as New Public Management and Ubuntu ethics. Six cross-cutting themes emerged (see

Table A3. Studies, themes, and subthemes.

Theme and Subthemes	Authors and Dates
Leadership and Governance Issues
Leadership Deficits and Ethical Governance	Dlamini et al. (2022); Mkhize et al. (2024); Kumalo and Scheepers (2021); Maramura et al. (2019); Sindane and Nambalirwa (2012); Mbandlwa et al. (2020); Naidoo (2012)
Political Interference and Cadre Deployment	Reddy (2016); Nkoana et al. (2024); Masuku and Jili (2022); Madumo (2016); Mbandlwa (2023); Van Eeden and Khaba (2016)
Corruption and Accountability Deficits	Munzhedzi (2016); Thusi and Selepe (2023); Maloba (2015); Sebake and Sebola (2014); Nzimakwe (2023); Mohlala (2023)
Politicisation vs. Professionalisation	Masuku and Jili (2022); Mbandlwa (2023); Franks (2015); Mlambo (2019); Madumo (2016)
Institutional and Administrative Challenges
Financial Constraints and Resource Scarcity	Ndebele and Lavhelani (2017); Moyo (2015); Koelble and LiPuma (2010); Zerihun and Mashigo (2022)
Skills Shortages and Capacity Gaps	Moyo (2015); Franks (2015); Koelble and LiPuma (2010); Mohlala (2023); Matloga et al. (2024)
Bureaucratic Inefficiency	Reddy (2016); Koma and Tshiyoyo (2015); Muthien (2014); Okafor (2018)
Records Management and Institutional Efficiency	Ngoepe (2014)
Public Management Reforms
New Public Management Implementation	Hofisi and Pooe (2017); Díaz Fuentes et al. (2014); Gumede and Dipholo (2014); Munzhedzi (2020); Molobela and Uwizeyimana (2023)
Public Financial Management Reforms	Ajam and Fourie (2016)
Administrative Reform Initiatives	Koma and Tshiyoyo (2015); Manyaka and Sebola (2012); Sing (2012)
Decentralisation Challenges	Smoke (2015); Díaz Fuentes et al. (2014); Koelble and LiPuma (2010)
Citizen Engagement and Public Trust
Citizen Dissatisfaction and Service Expectations	Masiya et al. (2019); Akinboade et al. (2014); Masuku et al. (2022)
Public Participation and Community Engagement	Zondi and Reddy (2016); Rulashe and Ijeoma (2022); Matloga et al. (2024); Biljohn and Lues (2020)
Service Delivery Protests	Twala (2014); Maramura et al. (2019); Sindane and Nambalirwa (2012); Akinboade et al. (2014)
Trust Deficits and Inequitable Development	Masuku et al. (2022); Qobo and Nyathi (2016); Masiya et al. (2019); Swart (2013)
Ethical Frameworks and Values
Ubuntu Ethics and Policy–Practice Dissonance	Qobo and Nyathi (2016); Maramura et al. (2019)
Public Sector Ethics	Mkhize et al. (2024); Mbandlwa et al. (2020); Naidoo (2012)
Historical Legacies and Social Justice	Masiya et al. (2019); Van Eeden and Khaba (2016); Swart (2013); Gumede and Dipholo (2014)
Digitalising Initiatives in Public Service
Public–Private Partnerships (PPPs)	Maramura (2016); Ndebele and Lavhelani (2017)
E-Governance and Digital Transformation	Shibambu and Ngoepe (2024); Maramura and Thakhathi (2016); F. Cloete (2012); Gegana and Phahlane (2024); Nkgapele (2024); Galushi and Malatji (2022); Kariuki et al. (2019); Malomane (2021); Mohale (2024)
Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) Applications	Mkhize et al. (2024); Galushi and Malatji (2022); Balkaran (2018)
Social Innovation and Participatory Governance	Biljohn and Lues (2020); Twum-Darko et al. (2023)
Rural–Urban Digital Disparities	Galushi and Malatji (2022); Mohale (2024); Koelble and LiPuma (2010)
Digital Literacy and Skills Gaps	Nkgapele (2024); Mohlala (2023); Malomane (2021)
ICT Infrastructure Limitations	Kariuki et al. (2019); Malomane (2021); Mohale (2024)
E-Participation and Digital Inclusion	Gegana and Phahlane (2024); Kariuki et al. (2019)
Integration of Digital Governance Frameworks (NPM and DEG)	Hofisi and Pooe (2017); Molobela and Uwizeyimana (2023); F. Cloete (2012); Ngoepe (2014); Reddy (2016); Thusi and Selepe (2023)
Implementation Challenges (Digital Divide, Institutional Constraints)	Galushi and Malatji (2022); Kariuki et al. (2019); Nkgapele (2024); Shibambu and Ngoepe (2024); Mohlala (2023); Balkaran (2018); Nkoana et al. (2024); Masuku and Jili (2022)
Approaches to Maximise Digital Initiatives (Context-Specific Adaptations)	Madumo (2016); Munzhedzi (2020); Mohale (2024); Nkgapele (2024); Malomane (2021); Biljohn and Lues (2020); Twum-Darko et al. (2023); Gegana and Phahlane (2024); Munzhedzi (2016); Ruwanika and Maramura (2024); Nzimakwe (2023)
Ethical Considerations in 4IR Technology Adoption	Mkhize et al. (2024); Mbandlwa et al. (2020); Naidoo (2012); Galushi and Malatji (2022); Balkaran (2018)
Collaborative Governance Models	Maramura (2016); Mbandlwa (2023); Sing (2012); Biljohn and Lues (2020); Twum-Darko et al. (2023)

, Appendix A): (1) leadership and governance (political interference, corruption); (2) institutional capacity (resource constraints, skills gaps); (3) public management reforms (decentralisation, public financial management); (4) citizen engagement (protests, trust deficits); (5) ethical frameworks (Ubuntu, historical legacies); and (6) digital transformation—the most developed theme, covering e-governance, 4IR technologies, digital divides, and collaborative models. The PRISMA flow chart (Figure 1) records 3501 initial database retrievals, with 64 studies retained after screening.

3.2. Keyword Co-Occurrence and Themes with VOSviewer

The VOSviewer Version 1.6.20 co-occurrence analysis was utilised to identify patterns in the literature by analysing how keywords appeared and interacted across studies. Instead of merely listing terms, the software mapped their relationships, illustrating which ideas are most interconnected. For instance, “e-government” appeared 69 times with a link strength of 245, making it a central concept, while “government data processing” also featured strongly with 30 appearances. The visualisation grouped related ideas into colour-coded clusters: digital governance (blue), public administration (green), service delivery (orange), and technology and innovation (purple). The closer the terms appeared to each other, the stronger their conceptual relationship within scholarly discussions.

The clusters identified in VOSviewer Version 1.6.20 (see Figure 2) provided a solid foundation for shaping the literature review framework. Five main themes were developed from these groupings, ensuring the analysis reflected real scholarly trends. For example, “Digitalising Initiatives in Public Service” grew out of the e-government cluster, while “Leadership and Governance Issues” emerged from governance-related terms. Challenges in efficiency and capacity informed “Institutional and Administrative Challenges”, and service delivery discussions shaped “Citizen Engagement and Public Trust”. Beyond these, the analysis also highlighted future concerns, such as artificial intelligence and digital divides in South Africa, making the themes both evidence-based and forward-looking.

3.3. Current State of Digital Governance in South Africa

South Africa’s digital governance landscape is constrained by persistent structural and institutional weaknesses that undermine effective service delivery. Leadership and governance are frequently compromised by political interference, cadre deployment, and procurement corruption, diverting resources away from critical infrastructural development (Nkoana et al., 2024; Munzhedzi, 2016; Mbandlwa et al., 2020). Institutional constraints, such as limited fiscal resources, rural–urban skill disparities, and bureaucratic inefficiencies, further impede e-governance implementation (Moyo, 2015; Ndebele & Lavhelani, 2017; Koelble & LiPuma, 2010). Public management reforms, inspired by New Public Management, have produced only partial gains; weak local capacity and inadequate fiscal support have left significant implementation gaps between national policy intent and municipal execution (Munzhedzi, 2020; Smoke, 2015; Koma & Tshiyoyo, 2015).

Citizen engagement has been largely procedural, with marginalised communities facing systemic exclusion, eroding trust in digital platforms and and fuelling recurring service delivery protests (Masuku et al., 2022; Zondi & Reddy, 2016; Akinboade et al., 2014). In parallel, digital transformation initiatives remain fragmented, constrained by rural–urban divides, inadequate infrastructure, and limited integration of Fourth Industrial Revolution technologies across government levels (Shibambu & Ngoepe, 2024; Galushi & Malatji, 2022; Kariuki et al., 2019; Mohale, 2024). These interlinked challenges suggest that without coherent strategies addressing governance, institutional capacity, and digital inclusion, South Africa’s digital governance will continue to reinforce inequality rather than bridge it.

3.4. Leadership and Governance Issues

This systematic review reveals a pervasive leadership crisis fundamentally undermining South African public service delivery through interconnected ethical deficits and political interference. Multiple studies establish direct correlations between unethical leadership and deteriorating service outcomes, with procurement fraud emerging as particularly damaging to digital transformation efforts (Mbandlwa et al., 2020; Naidoo, 2012; Sebake & Sebola, 2014). The scale of governance failure becomes apparent in audit outcomes, where only 41 of 257 municipalities achieved clean audits, directly fuelling public dissatisfaction and protests over service delivery (Thusi & Selepe, 2023).

Political interference through cadre deployment systematically undermines merit-based governance, producing a politicisation–professionalisation dilemma, which compromises administrative efficiency regardless of technological investments (Masuku & Jili, 2022; Nkoana et al., 2024; Reddy, 2016). This political manipulation extends to municipal appointments, where political considerations often override technical competence, which is essential for digital governance success (Madumo, 2016; Franks, 2015). Governance fragmentation manifests through weak institutional responses that fail to address systemic accountability deficits, making service delivery protests inevitable indicators of broader leadership failures (Sindane & Nambalirwa, 2012; Maramura et al., 2019). These findings indicate that successful digitalisation strategies require depoliticised governance structures that prioritise technical competence over political loyalty in digital transformation initiatives.

3.5. Institutional and Administrative Challenges

Research consistently points to four critical institutional barriers that create cycles of administrative weakness: resource constraints, capacity shortages, bureaucratic dysfunction, and operational inefficiency. Financial dependence on national grants fundamentally limits municipal fiscal autonomy necessary for responsive digital service provision, with this overreliance constraining innovation, particularly in rural municipalities where resource shortages compound existing capacity issues (Ndebele & Lavhelani, 2017; Moyo, 2015). Despite evidence of citizens’ willingness to pay for improved services, the core problem is the misalignment between planning processes and community needs, rather than demand deficits (Zerihun & Mashigo, 2022).

Critical skills shortages create multidimensional barriers that extend beyond technical competencies to encompass digital literacy deficiencies, undermining e-governance implementation efforts (Mohlala, 2023; Matloga et al., 2024). Rural municipalities face compounded challenges where limited resources intersect with skills gaps, creating environments where decentralised governance produces inefficiencies rather than improved service outcomes (Koelble & LiPuma, 2010). Structural inefficiencies stem from institutional design problems rather than implementation failures alone, with political interference disrupting planning processes and creating bureaucratic dysfunction that technological solutions cannot resolve independently (Reddy, 2016; Okafor, 2018; Koma & Tshiyoyo, 2015). These institutional barriers suggest that effective digital service delivery requires comprehensive capacity-building programs and infrastructure investments that address both technical skills gaps and structural governance deficiencies simultaneously.

3.6. Public Management Reforms

The literature highlights the complex challenges of adapting international governance models into South African’s developmental context amid persistent implementation gaps. The adoption of New Public Management (NPM) reveals fundamental tensions between market-driven efficiency goals and developmental mandates, with studies showing that uncritical NPM implementation has exacerbated service delivery problems in capacity-limited municipalities (Hofisi & Pooe, 2017; Gumede & Dipholo, 2014). Evidence suggests that efficiency-driven reforms may conflict with equity imperatives in post-apartheid contexts, necessitating hybrid models that integrate market-oriented approaches with developmental priorities (Munzhedzi, 2020; Molobela & Uwizeyimana, 2023).

Significant gaps persist between policy formulation and operational practice, despite legislative frameworks being established since 1994. Implementation challenges are particularly evident at the provincial and municipal levels, where capacity limitations intersect with complex regulatory requirements (Ajam & Fourie, 2016). Performance management systems consistently fail to capture service quality improvements and citizen satisfaction, creating disconnects between formal measurement systems and actual service experiences (Manyaka & Sebola, 2012). Decentralisation outcomes demonstrate context-dependent effectiveness that varies markedly across municipal categories, with democratic decentralisation principles conflicting with the need for efficient service delivery in municipalities with limited revenue and administrative capacity (Smoke, 2015; Koelble & LiPuma, 2010). The reform experience suggests that digitalisation strategies should be designed within hybrid governance frameworks that balance efficiency objectives with developmental mandates, rather than adopting uniform approaches across diverse municipal contexts.

3.7. Citizen Engagement and Public Trust

Research consistently finds a gap between citizen expectations and lived service experiences that undermine government legitimacy and democratic participation. These disconnects are most acute in historically disadvantaged communities, where apartheid-era legacies still shape access and quality through unreliable provision, inequitable allocation, and weak complaints resolution (Akinboade et al., 2014; Masiya et al., 2019). Participation mechanisms often prioritise procedural compliance substantive influence, while digital channels face tokenistic engagement, weak institutional capacity, and poor translation of citizen input into policy or operational changes (Zondi & Reddy, 2016; Rulashe & Ijeoma, 2022).

Despite the limits of traditional bureaucracy, cases of social innovation and collaborative governance show that co-design with citizens can improve relevance and sustainability (Biljohn & Lues, 2020; Twum-Darko et al., 2023). Trust deficits remain particularly acute in marginalised communities, where apartheid legacies foster deep-rooted scepticism about government capacity and commitment. Factors such as a lack of transparency, poor communication, and uneven resource distribution undermine the legitimacy essential for effective service delivery (Masuku et al., 2022; Qobo & Nyathi, 2016). These participation and trust challenges indicate that digital initiatives must be designed to enhance both accountability and inclusivity through transparent feedback mechanisms and multi-modal engagement platforms that address historical marginalisation rather than reproducing existing exclusions.

3.8. Ethical Frameworks and Values

The integration of ethical frameworks in the South African public service reveals tensions between traditional communal principles, modern governance, and historical legacies affecting access and quality. Ubuntu ethics reveal conflicts between communal values and practical service delivery, with gaps between traditional rhetoric and operational methods that align with individualism or market-driven approaches. This causes implementation issues as community expectations clash with bureaucratic efficiency and standardisation (Qobo & Nyathi, 2016; Maramura et al., 2019). However, Ubuntu’s principles could help develop more responsive, people-centred service models that connect tradition with governance.

The ethical dimension becomes increasingly complex with the advent of new technologies, where privacy and exclusion intersect with corruption issues. Digital transformation offers transparency but risks exclusion and breaches (Mkhize et al., 2024; Mbandlwa et al., 2020). Developing ethical frameworks that maximise transparency while protecting vulnerable groups and upholding values is vital.

Apartheid-era patterns still influence service delivery via infrastructure, institutional culture, and socioeconomic inequalities, with spatial inequality reflecting historical legacies that hinder reform. Addressing these root causes through structural reforms is essential for creating more equitable systems.

3.9. Digital Transformation Initiatives

The synthesis reveals that digital transformation offers opportunities to address traditional governance challenges, while also facing significant implementation barriers that require integrated approaches. E-governance development demonstrates a maturing understanding of the potential for digital transformation, despite inconsistent implementation, particularly in provincial and under-resourced areas where infrastructure limitations intersect with capacity constraints (F. Cloete, 2012; Maramura & Thakhathi, 2016; Shibambu & Ngoepe, 2024). Fourth Industrial Revolution technologies present transformative opportunities through artificial intelligence, data analytics, and mobile applications, enabling real-time citizen feedback and predictive service planning, while simultaneously posing governance and ethical challenges concerning data privacy and potential exclusion of vulnerable populations (Balkaran, 2018; Galushi & Malatji, 2022; Mkhize et al., 2024).

Digital infrastructure inequalities impose fundamental limitations on service delivery, with urban-biased development reinforcing patterns of digital exclusion that reflect broader socioeconomic disparities. Meanwhile, rural communities remain consistently underprioritized, facing barriers from affordability and inconsistent implementation (Mohale, 2024; Kariuki et al., 2019; Malomane, 2021). Digital literacy gaps create significant barriers that require multi-level strategies addressing both individual and institutional readiness. Research shows that infrastructure expansion alone remains insufficient without simultaneous investment in digital skills for citizens and officials (Malomane, 2021; Mohlala, 2023; Nkgapele, 2024). The digital transformation evidence indicates that successful implementation requires addressing infrastructural, institutional, and social barriers simultaneously through coordinated strategies that prioritise equity and inclusion alongside technological advancement.

4. Discussion

The transformation of public service delivery in South Africa through digital initiatives represents a critical frontier in addressing longstanding governance challenges. This discussion systematically addresses three research questions by synthesising findings from the thematic areas identified in our literature analysis, demonstrating how digitalisation strategies have been implemented, what barriers hinder progress, and how initiatives can improve both accountability and efficiency

This study indicates that inconsistencies across governance levels have characterised digitalisation implementation. It also demonstrates a clear trajectory for e-governance adoption to improve accountability and efficiency in public service delivery (Gegana & Phahlane, 2024; Shibambu & Ngoepe, 2024; Nkgapele, 2024). However, previous studies show that early frameworks provided foundational insights (F. Cloete, 2012), while recent studies highlight digital divides and infrastructural challenges as ongoing barriers, mainly in provincial and under-resourced areas (Gegana & Phahlane, 2024; Mohale, 2024). Traditional service delivery models marked by bureaucratic inefficiency, resource constraints, and governance failures are precisely the issues digital technologies seek to address (Ngoepe, 2014; Reddy, 2016; Thusi & Selepe, 2023).

Evidence from public management reforms indicates that the implementation of New Public Management (NPM) emerged in five key studies, highlighting fundamental tensions between market-oriented efficiency aims and South Africa’s developmental mandates (Hofisi & Pooe, 2017; Gumede & Dipholo, 2014). From an NPM perspective, these challenges can be seen as results of inefficient organisational structures that lack market-oriented principles and performance metrics deemed essential by NPM. Hood’s (1991) conceptualisation of NPM stresses the importance of decentralised decision-making and performance-based accountability, which digital initiatives can support by providing measurable service delivery indicators. Our analysis suggests that studies point towards emerging hybrid models that adapt NPM principles to South African contexts while upholding developmental objectives, reflecting the evolutionary path of digitalisation strategies.

As found through this review, institutional barriers, leadership, and governance issues indicate that political interference and cadre deployment are obstacles. Some studies specifically focus on municipal governance challenges (Reddy, 2016; Madumo, 2016) and political interference across broader public service systems (Nkoana et al., 2024). The digital divide emerges as a significant barrier, with studies showing that rural communities and economically disadvantaged populations often lack the infrastructure, skills, and resources needed to access digital services (Kariuki et al., 2019; Galushi & Malatji, 2022; Nkgapele, 2024). Institutional and administrative challenges, as highlighted in Theme 3, reveal that skills shortages and capacity gaps are also critical obstacles, with significant skills deficits affecting service delivery capabilities (Moyo, 2015; Franks, 2015). Meanwhile, deficiencies in digital literacy hinder the implementation of e-governance efforts (Mohlala, 2023).

Regarding infrastructural barriers, our analysis reveals that ICT infrastructure limitations persist as a significant challenge to the success of e-governance. Some studies consistently identify infrastructure gaps in rural areas as hindering digital transformation goals (Kariuki et al., 2019; Malomane, 2021; Mohale, 2024). Despite policy commitments, connectivity issues and technological incompatibilities persist between old and new systems.

Social barriers, citizen engagement, and public trust indicate that the gap between citizen expectations and actual service experiences creates significant challenges, particularly in historically disadvantaged areas (Akinboade et al., 2014; Masiya et al., 2019). This review also shows that historical legacies from apartheid-era spatial, institutional, and socioeconomic patterns continue to influence contemporary service delivery (Swart, 2013; Masiya et al., 2019).

The thematic analysis offers specific evidence-based approaches to address how digital initiatives enhance accountability and inclusivity in South Africa. The enhancement in public participation through digital platforms is an opportunity, with studies indicating that e-participation can improve government responsiveness and rebuild citizen trust (Biljohn & Lues, 2020; Twum-Darko et al., 2023; Gegana & Phahlane, 2024). However, this study reveals limitations in participatory governance structures, where procedural compliance often outweighs meaningful citizen influence (Zondi & Reddy, 2016; Rulashe & Ijeoma, 2022), which highlights the need for more substantive digital engagement mechanisms. Strengthening anti-corruption measures through transparent procurement systems and digital oversight mechanisms is essential for accountable service delivery (Munzhedzi, 2016; Nzimakwe, 2023; Ruwanika & Maramura, 2024). The study shows that corruption and accountability deficits significantly distort service delivery mechanisms, with procurement corruption worsening service backlogs and undermining transparent bidding processes (Sebake & Sebola, 2014). This review reveals that the dissonance between Ubuntu ethics and policy–practice creates opportunities for designing digital initiatives that align with South African value systems. Research indicates tensions between communal value frameworks and service delivery implementation practices (Qobo & Nyathi, 2016), suggesting that digital initiatives must incorporate indigenous ethical frameworks to enhance legitimacy.

5. Recommendations and Conclusions

Based on the findings, this study suggests the following implementation framework that turns empirical results into practical recommendations in four steps:

Step 1: Strategic Coordination

This addresses research question one, whose findings revealed that digitalisation strategies across South Africa’s provincial and municipal contexts suffer from fragmented implementation and coordination gaps. Studies document policy–practice disconnects where national frameworks fail to translate into effective local implementation. Implementation strategies should prioritise establishing Provincial Digital Governance Councils as intermediary coordination mechanisms, developing contextual adaptation protocols for municipal customisation while maintaining systemic coherence.

Step 2: Infrastructure Development

This addresses research question two, which reveals that infrastructure limitations constitute the most persistent impediment to digital service delivery. Rural areas experience disproportionate connectivity challenges, with inadequate cybersecurity and technological incompatibilities creating substantial barriers (Kariuki et al., 2019; Malomane, 2021; Mohale, 2024). Implementation strategies should prioritise targeted investment programs focusing on documented gap areas, implementing whole-of-government approaches to address connectivity issues and system incompatibilities through standardised technology frameworks.

Step 3: Capacity-Building

Continuing with research question two, critical skills deficits significantly affect service delivery capabilities, particularly in rural municipalities where tensions between political appointments and technical competence compromise effectiveness (Franks, 2015; Mohlala, 2023). Implementation strategies should prioritise comprehensive training programs addressing documented skill gaps through national development plan-guided initiatives, establishing professional standards and merit-based appointment protocols for digital governance positions.

Step 4: Inclusive Participation

This addresses research question three, which reveals that enhancing accountability and inclusivity requires paying systematic attention to documented participation failures. Current mechanisms demonstrate procedural compliance over meaningful influence, with trust deficits particularly pronounced in marginalised communities (Masuku et al., 2022; Zondi & Reddy, 2016). Implementation strategies should prioritise multi-modal participation platforms combining digital and traditional engagement channels, establishing responsive governance protocols that translate citizen input into measurable policy adjustments while creating real-time accountability dashboards accessible to all citizens.

This framework bridges traditional governance models with digital innovation by incorporating NPM’s focus on efficiency, accountability, and results with DEG’s emphasis on citizen centricity, holistic approaches, and digital integration. The implementation sequence acknowledges that digital transformation must be built on solid policy foundations, adequate infrastructure, skilled human resources, collaborative partnerships, and robust accountability mechanisms to deliver services effectively across South Africa’s diverse population.

5.1. Theoretical Implications

This study’s implications align the NPM and DEG frameworks with empirical findings. The review aimed to understand the integration of NPM-DEG in digital transformation, revealing tensions between NPM’s efficiency focus and DEG’s citizen-centric approach, with policy–practice gaps in South Africa (Koma & Tshiyoyo, 2015). The implications suggest that NPM’s performance measures require contextual adaptation to address South Africa’s inequalities, while DEG’s holistic approach addresses service delivery challenges.

This review examined factors affecting digital service delivery, highlighting skills gaps, infrastructure issues, and tensions between political and technical roles (Franks, 2015; Mohlala, 2023). It reflects NPM’s focus on professional management but shows its market-oriented limits in rural and marginalised areas. DEG theory’s emphasis on integrated governance aligns with findings on the fragmented nature of ICT infrastructure and the need for cohesive government approaches to enhance connectivity.

This study shows that tokenistic participation primarily affects marginalised communities, challenging the NPM’s assumption that market mechanisms improve services. It supports DEG’s user-focused approach and proposes an Accountable Digital Governance framework that combines NPM’s accountability with DEG’s inclusion, addressing issues like unethical leadership and the complexities of digital transformation.

5.2. Conclusions

Addressing research question one, this study concludes that fundamental tensions between NPM efficiency focus and DEG developmental mandates could result in fragmented digitalisation strategies across South Africa’s governance levels. The government must develop hybrid governance models combining NPM accountability with DEG inclusivity, establishing systematic monitoring mechanisms to bridge policy–practice gaps while tailoring digital initiatives to developmental realities through national development plan-aligned evaluation criteria.

Addressing research question two, this study identifies critical barriers, including skills deficits, infrastructure limitations, and political–technical tensions, that systematically impede digital service delivery. Priority interventions must include merit-based appointments that protect digital initiatives from political interference, coordinated rural infrastructure investment to address connectivity gaps, and multilingual capacity-building programs that establish professional standards for digital governance across all levels of government.

Addressing research question three, the study demonstrates systematic participation failures with procedural compliance over meaningful influence, particularly affecting marginalised communities experiencing trust deficits. Solutions require multi-modal platforms translating citizen input into policy outcomes, integrated accountability frameworks combining traditional audits with citizen feedback mechanisms, and transparency initiatives through public progress reporting to address documented correlations between unethical leadership and poor service delivery.

5.3. Future Research Directions

Future research should focus on empirical investigation using a survey design to measure the effects of digital transformation on service delivery quality, efficiency, and accessibility across different socioeconomic groups; how citizen trust and engagement with government services evolve through digital transformation processes; and assessing the sustainability of digital governance systems through political transitions and economic fluctuations.

5.4. Emerging Thought

The transformative potential of digitalisation for creating equitable, efficient public services remains powerful but unrealised in many contexts. This study, therefore, suggests that by thoughtfully integrating NPM’s accountability mechanisms with DEG’s citizen-centric digital approaches, governments can develop service delivery systems that respond effectively to diverse community needs while enhancing efficiency and transparency. As Mkhize et al. (2024) argue, responsible leadership in the Fourth Industrial Revolution era requires ensuring that technology serves public needs rather than becoming an end in itself.