Psychometric Properties of the Self-as-Context Scale with a University Counseling Center Sample
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Self-as-Context Scale (SACS)
2.3. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Factor Analyses
3.2. Known-Groups Validity
4. Discussion
5. Limitations
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Akbari, M., Seydavi, M., Hossein, Z. S., Krafft, J., & Levin, M. (2022). Experiential avoidance in depression, anxiety, obsessive-compulsive related, and posttraumatic stress disorders: A comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 24, 65–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- American Educational Research Association. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association. [Google Scholar]
- American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct (2002, amended effective 1 June 2010 and 1 January 2017). American Psychological Association. [Google Scholar]
- Arbuckle, J. L. (2003). Amos 5.0 update to the Amos user’s guide. Small Waters. [Google Scholar]
- Arch, J. J., Fishbein, J. N., Finkelstein, L. B., & Luoma, J. B. (2023). Acceptance and commitment therapy processes and mediation: Challenges and how to address them. Behavior Therapy, 54, 971–988. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Association for Contextual Behavioral Science. (n.d.). ACT randomized controlled trials (1986 to present). Available online: https://contextualscience.org/act_randomized_controlled_trials_1986_to_present (accessed on 19 February 2025).
- Aydin, Y., Uysal, I., Zettle, R. D., & Quan, H. (2024). Turkish adaptation of the self-as-context scale: A preliminary examination of its psychometric properties. Journal of Cognitive-Behavioral Psychotherapy and Research, 13, 229–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Biglan, A., & Hayes, S. C. (2016). Functional contextualism and contextual behavioral science. In R. D. Zettle, S. C. Hayes, D. Barnes-Holmes, & A. Biglan (Eds.), The Wiley handbook of contextual behavioral science (pp. 37–61). Wiley Blackwell. [Google Scholar]
- Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. Wiley. [Google Scholar]
- Borsboom, D., Mellenbergh, G. J., & van Heerden, J. (2003). The theoretical status of latent variables. Psychological Review, 110, 203–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Christensen, A., Doss, B. D., & Jacobson, N. S. (2020). Integrative behavioral couple therapy: A therapist’s guide to creating acceptance and change (2nd ed.). Norton. [Google Scholar]
- Ciarrochi, J., Zettle, R. D., Brockman, R., Duguid, J., Parker, P., Sahdra, B., & Kashdan, T. (2016). Measures that make a difference: A functional contextualistic approach to optimizing psychological measurement in clinical research and practice. In R. D. Zettle, S. C. Hayes, D. Barnes-Holmes, & A. Biglan (Eds.), The Wiley handbook of contextual behavioral science (pp. 320–346). Wiley Blackwell. [Google Scholar]
- Embretson, S. E., & Reise, S. P. (2000). Item response theory for psychologists. Lawrence Erlbaum. [Google Scholar]
- Fang, S., Huang, M., & Ding, D. (2023). Factor structure and measurement invariance of the Multidimensional Psychological Flexibility Inventory (MPFI) in Chinese samples. Current Psychology, 43(13), 11673–11687. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fang, S., Huang, M., & Wang, Y. (2022). Measuring self-as-context in Chinese college students: Validity and reliability of the Chinese version of self-as-context scale (C-SACS). Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1051661. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fishbein, J. N., Baer, R. A., Correll, J., & Arch, J. J. (2020). The Questionnaire on Self-Transcendence (QUEST): A measure of trait self-transcendence informed by contextual cognitive behavioral therapies. Assessment, 29, 508–526. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gloster, A. T., Walder, N., Levin, M. E., Twohig, M. P., & Karekla, M. (2020). The empirical status of acceptance and commitment therapy: A review of meta-analyses. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 18, 181–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Godbee, M., & Kangas, M. (2020). The relationship between flexible perspective taking and emotional well-being: A systematic review of the “self-as-context”component of acceptance and commitment therapy. Behavior Therapy, 51, 917–932. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Harris, R. (2009). ACT made simple: An easy-to-read primer on acceptance and commitment therapy. New Harbinger. [Google Scholar]
- Hayes, S. C. (1984). Making sense of spirituality. Behaviorism, 12, 99–110. [Google Scholar]
- Hayes, S. C. (2004). Acceptance and commitment therapy, relational frame theory, and the third wave of behavioral and cognitive therapies. Behavior Therapy, 35, 639–665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hayes, S. C., Hayes, L. J., & Reese, H. W. (1988). Finding the philosophical core: A review of Stephen C. Pepper’s world hypotheses: A study in evidence. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 50, 97–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hayes, S. C., & Hofmann, S. G. (Eds.). (2018). Process-based CBT: The science and core clinical competencies of cognitive behavioral therapy. Context Press. [Google Scholar]
- Hayes, S. C., Nelson, R. O., & Jarrett, R. B. (1986). Evaluating the quality of behavioral assessment. In R. O. Nelson, & S. C. Hayes (Eds.), Conceptual foundations of behavioral assessment (pp. 461–503). Guilford. [Google Scholar]
- Hayes, S. C., Nelson, R. O., & Jarrett, R. B. (1987). The treatment utility of assessment: A functional approach to evaluating assessment quality. American Psychologist, 42, 963–974. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (1999). Acceptance and commitment therapy: An experiential approach to behavior change. Guilford. [Google Scholar]
- Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (2012). Acceptance and commitment therapy: The process and practice of mindful change (2nd ed.). Guilford. [Google Scholar]
- Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1998). Fit indices in covariance structural modeling: Sensitivity to underparameterized model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3, 424–453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jeffcoat, T. (2015). Development of the Reno Inventory of Self-Perspective (RISP): Measuring self in the ACT model [Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Nevada, Reno]. [Google Scholar]
- Johannsen, M., Nissen, E. R., Lundorff, M., & O’Toole, M. S. (2022). Mediators of acceptance and mindfulness-based therapies for anxiety and depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 94, 102156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jöreskog, K. G., & Sörbom, D. (1996). LISREL 8: User’s reference guide. Scientific Software International. [Google Scholar]
- Kohlenberg, R. J., & Tsai, M. (1991). Functional analytic psychotherapy: A guide for creating intense and curative therapeutic relationships. Plenum. [Google Scholar]
- Levin, M. E., Kraftt, J., & Twohig, M. P. (2024). An overview of research on acceptance and commitment therapy. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 47, 419–431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Linehan, M. M. (1993). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. Guilford. [Google Scholar]
- Lord, F. M., & Novick, M. R. (1968). Statistical theories of mental test scores. Addison-Wesley. [Google Scholar]
- McHugh, L., & Stewart, I. (2012). The self and perspective taking: Contributions and applications from modern behavioral science. Context Press. [Google Scholar]
- Moran, O., Almada, P., & McHugh, L. (2018). An investigation into the relationship between the three selves (self-as-content, self-as-process, and self-as-context) and mental health in adolescents. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 7, 55–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nelson-Gray, R. (2003). Treatment utility of psychological assessment. Psychological Assessment, 15, 521–531. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- O’Connor, B. (2000). SPSS and SAS programs for determining the number of components using parallel analysis and Velicer’s MAP test. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments and Computers, 32, 396–402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peixoto, E. M., Gagnon, J., & Jeffcoat, T. R. (2019). Reno Inventory of Self-Perspective (RISP): Cross-cultural adaptation and validity evidence. SciElo Journals, 24, 233–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pepper, S. C. (1942). World hypotheses: A study in evidence. University of California Press. [Google Scholar]
- Preacher, K. J., & Coffman, D. L. (2006, May). Computing power and minimum sample size for REMSEA [Computer software]. Available online: http://quantpsy.org/ (accessed on 26 June 2025).
- Rolffs, J. L., Rogge, R. D., & Wilson, K. G. (2018). Disentangling components of flexibility via the hexaflex model: Development and validation of the Multidimensional Psychological Flexibility Inventory (MPFI). Assessment, 25, 458–482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Segal, Z., Williams, M., & Teasdale, J. (2018). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression (2nd ed.). Guilford. [Google Scholar]
- Skinner, B. F. (1974). About behaviorism. Knopf. [Google Scholar]
- Society of Clinical Psychology. (n.d.-a). Acceptance and commitment therapy for chronic pain. Available online: https://div12.org/treatment/acceptance-and-commitment-therapy-for-chronic-pain/ (accessed on 12 December 2024).
- Society of Clinical Psychology. (n.d.-b). Acceptance and commitment therapy for depression. Available online: https://div12.org/psychological-treatments/treatments/acceptance-and-commitment-therapy-for-depression/ (accessed on 12 December 2024).
- Society of Clinical Psychology. (n.d.-c). Acceptance and commitment therapy for mixed anxiety disorders. Available online: https://div12.org/treatment/acceptance-and-commitment-therapy-for-mixed-anxiety-disorders/ (accessed on 12 December 2024).
- Society of Clinical Psychology. (n.d.-d). Acceptance and commitment therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Available online: https://div12.org/psychological-treatments/treatments/acceptance-and-commitment-therapy-for-obsessive-compulsive-disorder/ (accessed on 12 December 2024).
- Society of Clinical Psychology. (n.d.-e). Acceptance and commitment therapy for psychosis. Available online: https://div12.org/psychological-treatments/treatments/acceptance-and-commitment-therapy-for-psychosis/ (accessed on 12 December 2024).
- Tunç, H., Morris, P. G., Kyranides, M. N., McArdle, A., McConachie, D., & Williams, J. (2023). The relationships between valued living and depression and anxiety: A systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 28, 102–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Velicer, W. F. (1976). Determining the number of components from the matrix of partial correlations. Psychometrika, 41, 321–327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Velicer, W. F., Eaton, C. A., & Fava, J. L. (2000). Construct explication through factor or component analysis: A review and evaluation of alternative procedures for determining the number of factors or components. In R. D. Goffin, & E. Helmes (Eds.), Problems and solutions in human assessment (pp. 41–71). Springer. [Google Scholar]
- World Health Organization. (2020). Guidelines on the management of chronic pain in children. Available online: https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/337999/9789240017870-eng.pdf?sequence=1 (accessed on 12 December 2024).
- Yu, L., McCracken, L. M., & Norton, S. (2016). The Self Experiences Questionnaire (SEQ): Preliminary analyses for a measure of self in people with chronic pain. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 5, 127–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, L., Norton, S., Almarzooqi, S., & McCracken, L. M. (2017). Preliminary investigation of self-as-context in people with fibromyalgia. British Journal of Pain, 11, 134–143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zettle, R. D., Gird, S. R., Webster, B. K., Carrasquillo-Richardson, N., Swails, J. A., & Burdsal, C. A. (2018). The self-as-context scale: Development and preliminary psychometric properties. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 10, 64–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zettle, R. D., & Hayes, S. C. (1986). Dysfunctional control by verbal behavior: The context of reason-giving. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 4, 30–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zettle, R. D., Larson, J. M., & Quan, H. (2025). Comparing the incremental validity of self-as-context-related measures. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 39(2), 150–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zettle, R. D., & Rains, J. C. (1989). Group cognitive and contextual therapies in treatment of depression. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 45, 438–445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zettle, R. D., & Wilson, K. G. (2023). Progression of ACT. In M. P. Twohig, M. E. Levin, & J. M. Petersen (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of acceptance and commitment therapy (pp. 3–24). Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar]
Sample | Counseling Center Students N = 132 | General Students a N = 315 | Clinic Outpatients b N = 54 |
---|---|---|---|
Age (SD) | 21.4 (4.2) | 20.7 (3.9) | 38.7 (14.4) |
Birth Gender | |||
Male % | 47 | 30 | 14 |
Female % | 53 | 70 | 86 |
Race | |||
White % | 73 | 80 | 72 |
Non-White % | 27 | 20 | 28 |
Ethnicity | |||
Latinx % | 24 | 14 | NA c |
Non-Latinx % | 76 | 86 | NA |
SACS (SD) | 44.9 (10.3) | 49.8 (9.4) | 39.7 (10.5) |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Zettle, R.D.; Lyons, G.A.; Larson, J.M.; Leonard, C. Psychometric Properties of the Self-as-Context Scale with a University Counseling Center Sample. Behav. Sci. 2025, 15, 910. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070910
Zettle RD, Lyons GA, Larson JM, Leonard C. Psychometric Properties of the Self-as-Context Scale with a University Counseling Center Sample. Behavioral Sciences. 2025; 15(7):910. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070910
Chicago/Turabian StyleZettle, Robert D., Grace A. Lyons, Jonathan M. Larson, and Christopher Leonard. 2025. "Psychometric Properties of the Self-as-Context Scale with a University Counseling Center Sample" Behavioral Sciences 15, no. 7: 910. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070910
APA StyleZettle, R. D., Lyons, G. A., Larson, J. M., & Leonard, C. (2025). Psychometric Properties of the Self-as-Context Scale with a University Counseling Center Sample. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 910. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070910