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Open AccessArticle
The Field of Gender Through Metaphors: The Dilemma of Female and Male Referees in the Minds of Football Fans
by
Sabiha Gizem Engin
Sabiha Gizem Engin
Sabiha Gizem Engin is an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Sport Sciences, Bozok University. She [...]
Sabiha Gizem Engin is an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Sport Sciences, Bozok University. She received her Bachelor’s degree in Sport Management from Ege University, School of Physical Education and Sports, in 2012, her Master’s degree in Physical Education and Sports from Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University in 2015, and her PhD in Sport Management and Recreation from Anadolu University in 2022. Starting her academic career as a research assistant, Engin has been working in academia for more than 12 years. Her research primarily focuses on the sociology of sport, particularly in the areas of gender studies, theories of masculinity in sport, women’s football, and the experiences of LGBTQ+ individuals in sports. Her academic interests also extend to sport management, gender and diversity in physical activity, and recreation studies.
Faculty of Sports Sciences, Yozgat Bozok University, Yozgat 66100, Türkiye
Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 1359; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15101359 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 26 August 2025
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Revised: 22 September 2025
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Accepted: 30 September 2025
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Published: 5 October 2025
Abstract
The perception of football as a male-dominated sport by society, coupled with the socio-cultural and economic barriers faced by women, has constrained their presence in the domain of football and revealed the manifestation of gender norms within the sport. This exclusion further masculinizes sport, negatively affecting social unity and cohesion, and deepening inequality within sport. Within this context, the study seeks to reveal how football fans perceive female and male referees through metaphorical representations. Participants, selected using purposive sampling, are individuals who regularly attend football matches and have experience watching games officiated by female football referees. The research employed a phenomenological approach to analyse metaphors generated by 352 football fans regarding female and male referees. Data were collected online through the Google Forms platform, which was accessible only to the researcher via password-protected access. During the analysis process, metaphors were coded, categorized, and transformed into meaningful interpretative formats. Results indicate that female referees are predominantly described with metaphors associated with sexist objectification, such as “flower”, “rose”, and “queen.” Female referees are represented by social roles and stereotypes metaphors like “mother,” and “gold,” yet they are also confronted with violence and disparaging metaphors such as “trash” and “chaos.” Conversely, male referees are perceived through metaphors evoking strength, toughness, and authority, including “lion”, “stone”, “authority”, “king”, and “leader.” These metaphorical representations highlight the persistence of gender norms within sport, demonstrating how women’s professional competencies are overshadowed by societal codes. Moreover, they are depicted as figures of power and discipline, reflecting masculinity within the sporting context. Ultimately, the research seeks to raise awareness about gender-based perceptions and foster transformation towards greater gender equality in sport.
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MDPI and ACS Style
Engin, S.G.
The Field of Gender Through Metaphors: The Dilemma of Female and Male Referees in the Minds of Football Fans. Behav. Sci. 2025, 15, 1359.
https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15101359
AMA Style
Engin SG.
The Field of Gender Through Metaphors: The Dilemma of Female and Male Referees in the Minds of Football Fans. Behavioral Sciences. 2025; 15(10):1359.
https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15101359
Chicago/Turabian Style
Engin, Sabiha Gizem.
2025. "The Field of Gender Through Metaphors: The Dilemma of Female and Male Referees in the Minds of Football Fans" Behavioral Sciences 15, no. 10: 1359.
https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15101359
APA Style
Engin, S. G.
(2025). The Field of Gender Through Metaphors: The Dilemma of Female and Male Referees in the Minds of Football Fans. Behavioral Sciences, 15(10), 1359.
https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15101359
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