The Field of Gender Through Metaphors: The Dilemma of Female and Male Referees in the Minds of Football Fans
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Method
2.1. Research Design
2.2. Research Participants
2.3. Data Collection
2.4. Data Analysis
2.5. Language Considerations
2.6. Ethical Statement
3. Results
4. Conclusions and Recommendations
- Football federations’ efforts to increase the visibility of female referees and emphasize the gender neutrality of the profession should be encouraged through collaborations within their organizations and with the media.
- Action plans aimed at increasing the representation of female referees in top-tier leagues and decision-making bodies such as the Referee Board should be developed and implemented effectively.
- Sports federations should establish gender-sensitive portrayal guidelines for media, as the IOC did in 2024, and encourage compliance among stakeholders (club officials, commentators, broadcasters, etc.) to promote equality in language and representation.
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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| Female Referees | Male Referees |
|---|---|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Category | Metaphors | Frequency | Justification (Because…) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sexist Objectification | Flower | 63 | …someone who exists in a particular atmosphere and makes that atmosphere unique. …she is both a leader and does not lose her femininity. …female referees are delicate and gentle. |
| Rose | 22 | ||
| Beautiful | 4 | ||
| Queen | 3 | ||
| Justice and Impartiality | Justice | 24 | …they apply in-game ethical rules more objectively. …women are just people with clearer boundaries. …they make fair and impartial decisions. |
| Scale | 9 | ||
| Equality | 4 | ||
| Professional Role and Management | Power | 3 | …women are always those who can control the chaos within football. …they are strong, brave, and possessive. …act according to a set of rules. |
| Manager | 3 | ||
| Social Roles and Stereotypes | Mother | 6 | …I believe matches led by female referees will be more effective and less abusive, because everyone has a woman like a mother or sister in their family. …female referees are so valuable that they create an environment of respect and love, thereby increasing youths’ interest in sports. …they are rare, valuable, and precious. |
| Gold | 6 | ||
| Violence and Disparaging Speech | Trash | 6 | …there is no place for female referees in this industrial football. …they cannot manage the game with the same perspective as men. …women should stay in their kitchens. |
| Chaos | 6 | ||
| Other Analogies | Lion | 10 | …they are possessive, strong, and noble. …they do a very courageous job in a male-dominated environment. …they observe well during the matches. |
| Eagle | 3 |
| Category | Metaphors | Frequency | Justification (Because…) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine Objectification | Stone | 10 | …knows how to get up after being hit. …are ruthless but just individuals. …men are physically strong. |
| Tough | 9 | ||
| Authority | 9 | ||
| Power | 7 | ||
| Justice and Impartiality | Justice | 17 | …since men are more committed to football, they find it easier to have problems with impartiality. …punish when necessary. …maintain order and ensure rules are followed. |
| Equality | 4 | ||
| Fair | 3 | ||
| Professional Role and Management | Referee | 20 | …symbol of football is male. …male referees are authorities who enforce the rules and maintain discipline more than females. …their stance is serious and professional. |
| Representative | 7 | ||
| Manager | 4 | ||
| Social Roles and Stereotypes | King | 4 | …is a guide on the field. …better than women at leadership and decision-making. …by nature, men are leaders. |
| Leader | 3 | ||
| Charismatic | 3 | ||
| Violence and Rude Speech | Wood | 8 | …since childhood, they support their fathers’ teams, so they tend to favor them in matches. …work like a guillotine, cutting and throwing away. …not always fair because they decide based on fan pressure and match conditions. |
| Dictator | 6 | ||
| Enemy | 4 | ||
| Rude | 4 | ||
| Egoistic | 3 | ||
| Favoritism | 3 | ||
| Other Analogies | Lion | 22 | …strong and determined. …unsurpassed in cunning. …moves like a machine. |
| Animal | 5 | ||
| Fox | 5 | ||
| Robot | 5 |
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Engin, S.G. The Field of Gender Through Metaphors: The Dilemma of Female and Male Referees in the Minds of Football Fans. Behav. Sci. 2025, 15, 1359. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15101359
Engin SG. The Field of Gender Through Metaphors: The Dilemma of Female and Male Referees in the Minds of Football Fans. Behavioral Sciences. 2025; 15(10):1359. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15101359
Chicago/Turabian StyleEngin, Sabiha Gizem. 2025. "The Field of Gender Through Metaphors: The Dilemma of Female and Male Referees in the Minds of Football Fans" Behavioral Sciences 15, no. 10: 1359. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15101359
APA StyleEngin, S. G. (2025). The Field of Gender Through Metaphors: The Dilemma of Female and Male Referees in the Minds of Football Fans. Behavioral Sciences, 15(10), 1359. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15101359

