Exploring the Relation between Emotional Intelligence, Subjective Wellness, and Psychological Distress: A Case Study of University Students in Taiwan
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Main Theoretical Trends in Research on Emotions
1.2. Description of Emotions
1.3. History and Models of Emotional Intelligence
1.4. Description of Emotional Intelligence
1.5. Measurement and Correlates of Emotional Intelligence
1.6. Enhancing Emotional Intelligence
1.7. Research Purpose and Hypotheses
1.7.1. Purpose
1.7.2. Hypotheses
- There would be acceptable reliability coefficients of the scales and significant correlations among the study variables. For example, there would be a significant positive correlation between two wellness variables of optimism and hope, suggesting that both the variables mutually influence each other in the same direction.
- There would be significant effects of emotional intelligence on the participants’ subjective wellness and psychological distress dimensions. For instance, higher levels of EI would predict lower levels of the psychological distress variable of depression.
- There would be acceptable reliability coefficients of the scales and significant correlations among the study variables. For example, there would be a significant negative correlation between the wellness variable of hope and the psychological distress variable of depression, suggesting that both the variables mutually influence each other in the opposite direction.
- Due to the formal academic course in emotional management and implementation of the appropriate interventions throughout the 18 week academic semester, there would be significant increases from the pre-course to post-course scores on the emotional intelligence of the participants.
- There would be significant effects of the post-course emotional intelligence levels on the participants’ subjective wellness and psychological distress dimensions. In addition, the significant effects would be different from those of the pre-course regression analyses, suggesting the relevance of a formal course in emotional management to enhance EI.
2. Methods
2.1. Study 1
2.1.1. Procedure and Participants
2.1.2. Measures
2.1.3. Statistical Analyses
2.2. Study 2
2.2.1. Procedure and Participants
2.2.2. Measures
2.2.3. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Study 1
3.1.1. Intercorrelations
3.1.2. Regression Analyses
3.2. Study 2
3.2.1. Intercorrelations
3.2.2. Differences in Pre-Course and Post-Course Scores
3.2.3. Regression Analyses
4. Discussion
4.1. Mutual Correlations
4.2. Role of Emotional Management Course in EI and Other Variables
4.3. Impact of EI on Wellness and Distress
5. Conclusions, Implications, and Limitations
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Category | Items | Frequency | Percentage |
---|---|---|---|
Gender | Male | 60 | 29.7 |
Female | 141 | 69.8 | |
Missing | 1 | 0.5 | |
Age | 18 | 12 | 5.9 |
19 | 70 | 34.7 | |
20 | 59 | 29.2 | |
21 | 37 | 18.3 | |
22 | 19 | 9.4 | |
23 | 3 | 1.5 | |
24 | 1 | 0.5 | |
25 | 1 | 0.5 | |
Department | Educational leadership | 46 | 22.8 |
Chinese literature | 36 | 17.8 | |
Clinical psychology | 49 | 24.3 | |
Life-science | 31 | 15.3 | |
English literature | 40 | 19.8 |
Variables | α | M | SD | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Emotional Intelligence | 0.94 | 170.20 | 28.26 | --- | 0.26 ** | 0.26 ** | 0.43 ** | −0.15 * | −0.28 * |
2. Optimism | 0.80 | 20.00 | 3.96 | --- | 0.51 ** | 0.39 ** | −0.43 ** | −0.52 ** | |
3. Satisfaction with Life | 0.82 | 19.08 | 5.42 | --- | 0.44 ** | −0.39 ** | −0.52 ** | ||
4. Hope | 0.74 | 23.84 | 3.48 | --- | −0.06 | −0.26 ** | |||
5. Psychological Distress | 0.82 | 06.87 | 4.14 | --- | 0.74 ** | ||||
6. Depression | 0.92 | 30.87 | 9.00 | --- |
Course Contents | Min | Max | Mean | SD |
---|---|---|---|---|
EM1: Concepts, Definitions, Categories, Functions | 3.00 | 10.00 | 7.17 | 1.72 |
EM2: “The Angry Birds” Movie and Discussion | 3.00 | 10.00 | 7.04 | 1.44 |
EM3: Prominent Figure (Ex: Trump) and Emotional Management | 3.00 | 10.00 | 6.46 | 1.77 |
EM4: Physiology and Emotions | 3.00 | 10.00 | 7.37 | 1.76 |
EM5: Emotions and Cognition | 3.00 | 10.00 | 7.65 | 1.64 |
EM6: EQ Questionnaire and Analysis | 3.00 | 10.00 | 7.81 | 1.45 |
EM7: Personality and Emotions | 3.00 | 10.00 | 7.11 | 1.42 |
EM8: Personality Test and Analysis | 3.00 | 10.00 | 7.74 | 1.68 |
EM9: Emotions in the Context of Family | 3.00 | 10.00 | 7.67 | 1.59 |
EM10: Social Culture and Emotions | 3.00 | 10.00 | 7.63 | 1.57 |
EM11: “Inside Out” Movie and Individual Reflection | 3.00 | 10.00 | 9.00 | 1.55 |
EM12: “Inside Out” Movie, Group Discussion and Oral Report | 3.00 | 10.00 | 8.15 | 2.04 |
EM13: Contemporary Media Influence on Emotions | 3.00 | 10.00 | 7.39 | 1.48 |
EM14: Emotional Management amid Technology Development | 3.00 | 10.00 | 6.89 | 1.66 |
EM15: Exercise on Developing an Emotional Vocabulary | 3.00 | 10.00 | 6.76 | 1.72 |
EM16: Communication Power of Emotions in Interpersonal Relations | 3.00 | 10.00 | 7.74 | 1.56 |
EM17: In-vivo Exercise in Discovering and Expressing Emotions | 3.00 | 10.00 | 7.28 | 1.69 |
EM18: Emotions and Metaphors | 3.00 | 9.00 | 6.54 | 1.66 |
EM19: Exercise on the Relation between Needs, Metaphors, and Emotions | 2.00 | 9.00 | 6.63 | 1.72 |
EM20: Group Exercise on Constructing Emotional Management Pattern | 2.00 | 10.00 | 7.37 | 2.03 |
EM21: Weekly Journaling and Analysis of Emotions | 3.00 | 10.00 | 7.63 | 2.03 |
EM22: Semester Integration Paper (Personalized Emotional Management Pattern) | 2.00 | 10.00 | 7.02 | 2.18 |
Variables | Pre-Course (Time 1) | ||||||||
α | M | SD | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | |
1. Emotional Intelligence | 0.96 | 154.39 | 37.94 | --- | 0.25 | 0.27 | 0.61 ** | −0.11 | −0.28 |
2. Optimism | 0.74 | 20.22 | 3.78 | --- | 0.49 ** | 0.58 ** | −0.35 ** | −0.41 ** | |
3. Satisfaction with Life | 0.91 | 19.52 | 6.23 | --- | 0.59 ** | −0.38 ** | −0.50 ** | ||
4. Hope | 0.79 | 27.67 | 4.22 | --- | −0.26 | −0.47 ** | |||
5. Psychological Distress | 0.77 | 07.09 | 4.15 | --- | 0.74 ** | ||||
6. Depression | 0.89 | 31.09 | 8.27 | --- | |||||
Post-Course (Time 2) | |||||||||
α | M | SD | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | |
1. Emotional Intelligence | 0.96 | 179.37 | 33.17 | --- | 0.22 | 0.37 * | 0.45 ** | −0.19 | −0.43 ** |
2. Optimism | 0.76 | 26.96 | 1.35 | --- | 0.35 ** | 0.51 ** | −0.14 | −0.22 | |
3. Satisfaction with Life | 0.92 | 29.89 | 2.95 | --- | 0.44 ** | −0.29 | −0.26 | ||
4. Hope | 0.79 | 35.41 | 2.08 | --- | −0.10 | −0.54 ** | |||
5. Psychological Distress | 0.78 | 02.00 | 1.56 | --- | 0.48 ** | ||||
6. Depression | 0.89 | 16.54 | 4.39 | --- |
Outcome Variables | F | R2 | t | β | Confidence Intervals (Lower–Upper) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Optimism | 14.83 *** | 0.06 | 3.85 ** | 0.26 | 0.018~0.057 |
Satisfaction with Life | 14.86 *** | 0.07 | 3.85 ** | 0.26 | 0.025~0.078 |
Hope | 46.28 *** | 0.18 | 6.80 ** | 0.43 | 0.056~0.102 |
Psychological Distress | 4.32 * | 0.02 | −2.08 * | −0.14 | −0.043~−0.001 |
Depression | 17.26 *** | 0.08 | −4.15 *** | −0.28 | −0.135~−0.048 |
Variables | Mean Difference | Confidence Interval | t (df = 45) | η2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower | Upper | ||||
Emotional Intelligence | 24.98 | −30.77 | −19.17 | 8.67 * | 0.63 |
Optimism | 6.74 | −7.74 | −5.73 | 13.51 * | 0.80 |
Satisfaction with Life | 10.37 | −11.60 | −9.13 | 16.97 * | 0.86 |
Hope | 7.74 | −8.60 | −6.87 | 17.99 * | 0.88 |
Psychological Distress | 5.08 | 4.23 | 5.94 | 12.03 * | 0.76 |
Depression | 14.54 | 13.03 | 16.05 | 19.40 * | 0.89 |
Time | Outcome Variables | F | R2 | t | β | Confidence Intervals (Lower–Upper) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre-Course | Optimism | 2.92 | 0.06 | 1.70 | 0.25 | −0.004~0.054 |
(Time 1) | Satisfaction with Life | 3.41 | 0.07 | 1.85 | 0.27 | −0.004~0.092 |
Hope | 26.08 ** | 0.37 | 5.11 *** | 0.61 | 0.041~0.095 | |
Psychological Distress | 0.57 | 0.01 | −0.76 | −0.11 | −0.045~0.021 | |
Depression | 3.83 | 0.08 | −1.96 | −0.28 | −0.126~0.002 | |
Post-Course | Optimism | 2.17 | 0.05 | 1.47 | 0.22 | −0.003~0.021 |
(Time 2) | Satisfaction with Life | 6.80 * | 0.13 | 2.61 * | 0.37 | 0.007~0.058 |
Hope | 10.82 ** | 0.20 | 3.29 ** | 0.44 | 0.011~0.045 | |
Psychological Distress | 1.69 | 0.04 | −1.30 | −0.19 | −0.023~0.005 | |
Depression | 9.96 ** | 0.19 | −3.16 ** | −0.43 | −0.092~-0.020 |
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Edara, I.R. Exploring the Relation between Emotional Intelligence, Subjective Wellness, and Psychological Distress: A Case Study of University Students in Taiwan. Behav. Sci. 2021, 11, 124. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs11090124
Edara IR. Exploring the Relation between Emotional Intelligence, Subjective Wellness, and Psychological Distress: A Case Study of University Students in Taiwan. Behavioral Sciences. 2021; 11(9):124. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs11090124
Chicago/Turabian StyleEdara, Inna Reddy. 2021. "Exploring the Relation between Emotional Intelligence, Subjective Wellness, and Psychological Distress: A Case Study of University Students in Taiwan" Behavioral Sciences 11, no. 9: 124. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs11090124
APA StyleEdara, I. R. (2021). Exploring the Relation between Emotional Intelligence, Subjective Wellness, and Psychological Distress: A Case Study of University Students in Taiwan. Behavioral Sciences, 11(9), 124. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs11090124