Assessment of the Treatment of Natural Hazards in the Spanish School Curriculum (Secondary Education and Baccalaureate)

Abstract

The cut-off low that struck Valencia (Spain) on 29 October 2024, causing 229 deaths, underscored the pressing need to promote awareness and strengthen education on natural hazards, particularly among school-aged students. In this scenario, revising the school curriculum becomes essential to ensure that future generations are prepared to confront the challenges posed by climate change. This study examines how knowledge related to natural hazards is incorporated into the official curricula of Secondary (ages 12 to 16) and Baccalaureate education (ages 16 to 19), based on the Royal Decrees enacted since 2022. The study aims to determine which contents are included, the Specific Competencies addressed, and the pedagogical approaches employed (descriptive, preventive, or critical), while also evaluating the coherence of these elements across subjects and educational levels. Findings reveal a scarce and often fragmented presence of such contents, with a predominance of descriptive approaches and limited emphasis on prevention or critical reflection. The study concludes that risk education should be transversal, contextually grounded, and transformative. Current curricular gaps and that current gaps and overlaps represent an opportunity to reinforce territorial literacy and enhance students’ resilience.

1. Introduction

The current process of climate change, which is intensifying extreme atmospheric events, has revealed the complexity of how societies coexist with natural hazards. This situation highlights the need to educate the population so that they understand the level of risk in the areas they inhabit and know how to act in emergency situations. The Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [1] emphasizes the importance of addressing these phenomena comprehensively within the framework of disaster-risk actions included in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs 4, 9, 11, and 13) proposed by the United Nations [2]. Furthermore, the concept of climate-resilient development has been introduced to describe the need for social and economic development that is healthy, equitable, and just throughout efforts to reduce the current global warming trend [2].

Comprehensive disaster-risk management is a complex challenge that combines physical-environmental, social, and economic processes, along with political circumstances and the urgency derived from climate change [3]. A clear example of this complexity is the cut-off low that affected Valencia (Spain) on 29 October 2024, revealing the extreme vulnerability of the Mediterranean region [4,5,6]. In Mediterranean areas, floods represent a recurrent hazard, intensified by urban expansion in zones with insufficient drainage, which increases the vulnerability of populations and infrastructures to episodes of heavy rainfall [7,8,9].

Statistics highlight this reality: between 2000 and 2023, 1174 deaths from natural disasters were recorded in Spain, mainly due to heat waves and floods [10]. To this figure must be added the 237 victims of the 2024 cut-off low (229 in Valencia), an event that has significantly reshaped social perceptions of risk [7] and is considered the second most destructive in the country since the mid-20th century [5], surpassed only by the Vallés floods (Catalonia) in 1962 [11].

The 2024 catastrophe was intensified by factors such as the rapid overflow of ravines, accelerated urbanization [9], and the absence of effective alert systems and citizen preparedness [12]. These elements underscore the need to implement stronger preventive policies and to promote a culture of resilience [13].

In this context, the educational sphere emerges as a fundamental pillar for building resilient societies. This study highlights the urgency of preparing the school community to face such circumstances [14]. Schools must integrate actions of prevention, response, and recovery that strengthen collective adaptation and transform experiences into meaningful learning [15,16,17,18]. Likewise, strengthening geographic [19,20] and environmental education [21] is essential to address future climate challenges.

Within risk education, the current context of climate change makes it essential to incorporate into schools the teaching of extreme atmospheric phenomena as well as those of geological and biological origin. An important reference in this regard is the Fifth Assessment Report of the IPCC [22], which highlighted the need to promote educational processes that facilitate understanding and preparation for these challenges. As noted, international frameworks such as the UN Sustainable Development Goals [2] and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction [23] emphasize the role of education in reducing social vulnerability and fostering a culture of prevention and resilience.

In Spain, education has traditionally not been viewed as a key factor in reducing social vulnerability to natural hazards. However, in recent years, multiple initiatives have been promoted to increase public knowledge about climate change and its associated risks [24]. In this regard, significant progress has been made in risk-related educational legislation related, such as Law 7/2021 of 20 May on climate change, which includes specific educational measures in Title VIII [25]. Furthermore, the education law LOMLOE (2020) has expanded the inclusion of climate change into curricula, overcoming the limitations of the LOMCE [13].

Natural risk has been defined in multiple ways, but from a geographical perspective it is understood as the territorial outcome of unsuitable human interventions in areas prone to natural hazards. This approach integrates hazard, vulnerability, and exposure, and emphasizes that it is often human action that transforms a potentially dangerous environment into a risk space [26]. Natural risk does not depend solely on the natural phenomenon—such as earthquakes, floods, or wildfires—but on how natural processes interact with the social, economic, and territorial conditions of communities, meaning its origin lies less in the event itself and more in the context in which it occurs.

The General Objective (GO) of this study is to identify and analyze the presence of knowledge related to natural hazards in the current official curriculum of the Spanish education system, covering the stages of Secondary Education (ages 12–16) and Baccalaureate (ages 16–18). Based on the analysis of the Royal Decrees (2022) that regulate the minimum teachings at each level, the study aims to:

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Specific Objective 1 (SO1): examine in which subjects and blocks of foundational knowledge natural hazards are addressed.

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Specific Objective 2 (SO2): identify the Specific Competencies (SC) related to this topic.

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Specific Objective 3 (SO3): analyze the pedagogical approach applied to these contents (descriptive, preventive, or critical).

To address these objectives, three hypotheses are proposed:

Hypothesis 1 (H1): 

the presence of foundational knowledge related to natural hazards in the current official curriculum of the Spanish education system is limited and concentrated mainly in specific areas such as Natural and Social Sciences, with little transversal integration across other disciplines. Moreover, this knowledge does not appear to be adapted to the school ages at which it is taught, which may lead to misconceptions about their territorial relevance, effects, and the guidelines for managing extreme events that should be organized at each educational stage.

Hypothesis 2 (H2). 

the SC show a certain degree of curricular transversality in the teaching of natural hazards, implying that different subject areas contribute complementarily to their educational treatment.

Hypothesis 3 (H3). 

the predominant pedagogical approach is mainly descriptive, with limited orientation toward prevention, action, and critical reflection, which constrains the development of civic competencies in the face of natural disasters.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Royal Decrees Consulted

This study is based on a documentary analysis of the normative texts that regulate the school curriculum in Spain under the LOMLOE, focusing specifically on the Royal Decrees that establish the minimum compulsory content for Secondary Education (RD 217/2022) and Baccalaureate (RD 243/2022).

These documents were selected because of their official status and their role as the normative foundation upon which regional curricula are developed. It should also be noted that the analysis was carried out using the versions published in the Boletín Oficial del Estado (BOE), ensuring full fidelity to the current legal texts.

The LOMLOE (Organic Law 3/2020) introduces a significant change in the Spanish curricular model by promoting a competency-based, transversal approach oriented toward sustainable development [27]. Within this new normative framework, the aim is for students not only to acquire knowledge but also to develop skills, attitudes, and values that enable them to act critically, ethically, and responsibly when faced with contemporary challenges. In this context, ecosocial education emerges as a key dimension for addressing the climate crisis, environmental justice, and the interdependence between human beings and nature [28].

The competency-based curriculum of the LOMLOE is structured around the exit profile, Key Competencies (KC), SC for each subject area, and the foundational knowledge. In areas such as Social Sciences, Natural Sciences, and Civic and Ethical Values, contents related to climate change, sustainability, risk management, and citizen participation are included. However, this inclusion requires methodological specification that enables these contents to be addressed from an ecosocial, situated, and transformative perspective [29].

Ecosocial education in the LOMLOE seeks to prepare students to live in a world marked by ecological and social uncertainty, fostering critical thinking, co-responsibility, and collective action [30]. It proposes key learning dimensions such as “interdependence and ecodependence”, “ecosocial justice” and “transformation of the environment”, which must be addressed in an integrated manner across stages and subject areas. This competency-based approach offers an opportunity to reorient education toward resilience and sustainability, provided its implementation is coherent and contextually grounded.

2.2. Procedure and Data Analysis

This study is structured around three analytical axes that enable an in-depth examination of the curriculum:

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First axis: an analysis of the blocks of foundational knowledge, examining which contents make explicit or implicit reference to natural hazards and extreme climatic phenomena (SO1).

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Second axis: an analysis of the SC, identifying those that promote understanding of the environment, the capacity to anticipate risk situations, informed decision-making, and participation in contexts of vulnerability (SO2). This axis assesses the transversal approach to natural hazard education, considering whether it is articulated as a guiding thread across different areas of knowledge and whether formative continuity is ensured between educational stages.

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Third axis: an examination of how these contents are approached in the classroom, with respect to the pedagogical orientation adopted (descriptive, preventive, or critical) (SO3) [31] (

Table 1. Pedagogical approaches in the teaching of natural hazards.

Descriptive approach: - This approach focuses on conveying objective and detailed information about natural hazards. The teacher acts as primarily a lecturer, providing data on different types of phenomena (earthquakes, floods, wildfires, etc.), their causes, characteristics, and consequences. Students play a more passive role, receiving and memorizing content. While this approach is useful for establishing a conceptual foundation, it may limit the development of practical or reflective skills if not complemented by other approaches.

Preventive approach: - Here the emphasis is placed on preparing students to act in danger situations by promoting safe behaviours and response protocols. It is linked to education for risk management and civil protection. Teachers guide practical activities such as drills, analysis of emergency plans, and the creation of risk maps. This approach seeks to strengthen students as active agents in disaster prevention and mitigation.

Critical approach: - This approach encourages deep reflection on the structural and social causes of natural hazards, questioning the relationship between humans and the environment. It is connected to socio-critical thinking and transformative environmental education. Teachers promote dialogue, case analysis, and participatory research. Students develop a critical awareness of how political, economic, and urban planning decisions can increase vulnerability to risks, and how they can contribute to building a more resilient and just society.

Source: Sucari et al. [31]. Own elaboration.

).

3. Results

3.1. Secondary Education. Risks, Climate Change and Spatial Governance

3.1.1. Foundational Knowledge

Compulsory Secondary Education (ESO), for students aged 12 to 16, organizes its curriculum by subjects and areas, oriented toward the development of KC such as critical thinking, autonomy, responsibility, and learning-to-learn (RD 217/2022). Meaning, reflective, and collaborative learning is promoted, with special attention to student diversity. Natural hazards are mainly addressed in “Geography and History” and “Biology and Geology”, where natural phenomena, the physical environment, and the interaction between society and its surroundings are studied. They may also be approached transversally in “Education in Civic and Ethical Values”, fostering social awareness, prevention, and resilience in risk situations.

Students in “Geography and History” develop the capacity to analyze a complex and evolving reality, understanding territorial changes shaped by human activity (

Table 2. Foundational knowledge on natural hazards (“Geography and History”).

1st and 2nd Year (Secondary Education)
Block A. Challenges of the Contemporary World - Climate Emergency: elements and factors that condition climate and the impact of human activities. Methods for collecting meteorological data and interpreting graphs. Climatic risks and disasters in the present, past, and future. Vulnerability, prevention, and resilience of the population in the face of natural disasters and the effects of climate change. - Biodiversity: dynamics and threats to planetary ecosystems. Forms and processes of modification of the Earth’s surface. Wealth and value of natural heritage. Human influence on ecosystem alteration in the past and present. Conservation and environment improvement. - Information Technologies: management and use of devices, computer applications, and digital platforms. Searching, processing information, and producing knowledge. - Sustainable Development Goals: understanding contemporary dilemmas as a basis for critical thinking and independent judgment.
3rd and 4th year (Secondary Education)
Block A. Challenges of the contemporary world - Sustainable Development Goals: climate emergency and sustainability. Relationship between natural and anthropogenic factors on Earth. Globalization, migratory movements, and interculturality. Technological advances and ecosocial awareness. Ideological and ethnocultural conflicts. - Media Culture: techniques and methods of the Social Sciences; analysis of texts, maps, diagrams, graphs, and images using digital tools. Geographic information technologies. - The Global and the Local: research in Social Sciences, multicausal study and comparative analysis of natural, rural, and urban spaces, their evolution, and future challenges. Analysis of spatial concepts: location, scale, connection, and spatial proximity.

Source: Ministry of Education and Vocational Training [32]. Own elaboration.

). The curriculum strengthens geographic thinking, enabling learners to interpret space, assess connections and distributions, and evaluate human impacts from local to global scales. The block “Local and Global Civic Commitment” adds a formative dimension by integrating values, attitudes, and personal development. This component gives coherence and meaning to curricular knowledge and extends learning beyond the individual level, promoting social and civic responsibility. It encourages active engagement with the environment and participation in collective life as essential elements of comprehensive education.

In “Biology and Geology”, foundational knowledge related to natural hazards includes the study of Earth dynamics (plate tectonic movements, volcanoes, and earthquakes), atmospheric and climatic processes (storms, hurricanes, or droughts), and geological and environmental risk factors including erosion, landslides, and floods (

Table 3. Foundational knowledge on natural hazards (“Biology and Geology”).

Block B. Geology (4th year of ESO) - Relief and landscape: distinctions, significance as resources, and shaping factors. - Structure and dynamics of the geosphere: study methods. - Global effects of geosphere dynamics from the perspective of plate tectonics. - External and internal geological processes: differences and their relationship with natural hazards. Preventive measures and risk maps. - Geological cross-sections: interpretation and reconstruction of geological history through principles such as horizontality, superposition, intersection, and faunal succession.

Source: Ministry of Education and Vocational Training [32]. Own elaboration.

).

Regarding “Education in Civic and Ethical Values”, this subject addresses ethical, social, and community dimensions linked to prevention, solidarity, and resilience. The most relevant foundational knowledge includes the analysis of global issues such as climate change, environmental sustainability, intergenerational justice, and citizen co-responsibility in emergency situations. Values such as cooperation, mutual respect, and informed decision-making are also addressed, which are fundamental for facing natural hazards from a collective and committed perspective (

Table 4. Foundational Knowledge on Natural Hazards (“Education in Civic and Ethical Values”).

Block C. Sustainability and environmental ethics - Interdependence, interconnection, and ecodependence between human lifestyles and the environment. The local and the global. Critical perspectives on human–nature relationship. - Planetary limits and resource depletion. The ecological footprint of human actions. Climate emergency. - Ethical, scientific, and political approaches to ecosocial problems. Environmental ethics, care ethics, and ecofeminism. Sustainable Development Goals, degrowth, and circular economy.

Source: Ministry of Education and Vocational Training [32]. Own elaboration.

).

3.1.2. Specific Competencies

The treatment of natural hazards in the Secondary Education curriculum is directly linked to several SC across different subjects (

Table 5. SC linked to natural hazards (Secondary Education).

“Geography and History”
- SC 3. Understand the main challenges faced by different societies throughout history, identifying the causes and consequences of past transformations and the problems they face today, through the development of research projects and the use of reliable sources, to make proposals that contribute to sustainable development. - SC 4. Identify and analyze landscape elements and their articulation within complex natural, rural, and urban systems, as well as their evolution over time, interpreting the causes of transformations and assessing the degree of balance in different ecosystems, to promote their conservation, improvement, and sustainable use. - SC 9. Understand and appreciate the importance of comprehensive citizen security in the culture of national and international coexistence, recognizing the contribution of the State, its institutions, and other social entities to global citizenship, peace, international cooperation, and sustainable development, to foster a safer, more supportive, sustainable, and just world.
“Biology and Geology”
- SC 5. Analyze the effects of certain actions on the environment and health, based on the principles of biological and Earth sciences, to promote and adopt habits that prevent or minimize negative environmental impacts, are compatible with sustainable development, and contribute to maintaining and improving individual and collective health. - SC 6. Analyze the elements of a specific landscape, valuing it as natural heritage and using knowledge of geology and Earth sciences to explain its geological history, propose actions aimed at its protection, and identify potential natural hazards.
“Education in Civic and Ethical Values”
- SC 2. Act and interact in accordance with civic and ethical norms and values, based on a well-founded recognition of their importance for regulating community life and their effective and justified application in different contexts, to promote peaceful, respectful, democratic coexistence committed to the common good. - SC 3. Understand the interconnected and interdependent nature of human activities, through the identification and analysis of relevant ecosocial problems, to promote habits and attitudes ethically committed to achieving sustainable ways of life.

Source: Ministry of Education and Vocational Training [32]. Own elaboration.

). In “Geography and History”, SC 3 enables the study of hazards as social and environmental challenges, encouraging research into their causes and consequences to propose sustainable solutions. SC 4 supports the study of landscapes and ecosystems, which is key to understanding natural dynamics and vulnerability factors, while SC 9 introduces the dimension of citizen security, linking natural hazards to a culture of peace, international cooperation, and community resilience.

In “Biology and Geology”, SC 5 promotes the analysis of environmental impacts and their relationship with health, fostering preventive and sustainable habits. SC 6 focuses on analyzing landscapes from geological perspective, integrating natural heritage with hazard identification and prevention. “Education in Civic and Ethical Values” introduces an ethical and ecosocial dimension to learning. It promotes coexistence and civic responsibility in situations of risk (SC 2) and helps students understand how human actions and natural phenomena are interconnected (SC 3). Through this approach, the subject encourages sustainable attitudes and a commitment to environmental justice.

3.1.3. Pedagogical Approach and Interdisciplinarity

In relation to the pedagogical approach, the subject of “Geography and History” adopts a critical perspective that links territorial analysis with sustainability and active citizenship. This allows natural hazards to be contextualized in terms of structural and social factors, fostering reflection on sustainability and citizen security. “Biology and Geology” combine the descriptive approach, focused on the scientific understanding of natural processes, with the preventive approach, oriented toward responsible action. Finally, “Education in Civic and Ethical Values” incorporates an ethical and ecosocial dimension, inviting students to reflect on human–nature interdependence, environmental justice, and collective responsibility (Figure 1).

Taken together, these three subjects articulate knowledge, attitudes, and competencies that enable students to critically interpret natural hazards, understand their causes, and actively participate in their prevention and management from the standpoint of committed citizenship.

3.2. Baccalaureate. Sustainability, Natural Hazards and Spatial Planning

3.2.1. Foundational Knowledge

The Baccalaureate curriculum (Royal Decree 243/2022) establishes the minimum teaching requirements for the comprehensive education of students aged 16 to 18, preparing them for higher education, active participation in society, and responsible citizenship. This stage is organized into two years and three modalities (Science and Technology, Humanities and Social Sciences, and Arts), with specific and elective subjects that allow students to follow personalized learning pathways.

Natural hazards are mainly addressed in “Geography”, “Earth and Environmental Sciences”, and “Geology and Environmental Sciences”. In “Geography”, students study the sustainability of Spain’s physical environment, including geomorphological and climatic factors, as well as the prevention of risks associated with human activity (

Table 6. Foundational knowledge on natural hazards (“Geography”).

Block A. Spain, Europe and globalization - Spain in the world. Spain facing globalization: threats and opportunities. Global geopolitical context and participation in international organizations. International cooperation and missions abroad. Assessment of commitments to the Sustainable Development Goals.

Block B. The sustainability of Spain’s physical environment - Physical factors and diversity of landscapes and ecosystems. Analysis of geomorphological, bioclimatic, edaphic, hydrological, and human-related conditions, and prevention of associated risks for people. - Climatic diversity in Spain. Comparative analysis of climatic patterns and their spatial representation. Climate emergency: changes in thermopluviometric patterns; causes, consequences, and measures of mitigation and adaptation. Strategies for interpreting weather reports and meteorological alerts; websites and mobile applications. - Biodiversity, soils, and water systems. Characteristics by natural regions. Impact of human activities and resulting effects: biodiversity loss, soil degradation, and water management. Interpretation of images, cartography, and datasets. Human-induced risks. - Environmental policies in Spain and the European Union. Use of diagnostic tools. The network of Protected Natural Areas and the Natura 2000 network. Debate on changes to the development model: the principle of sustainability.

Block C. Territorial planning from an ecosocial perspective - Urban spaces in Spain. Major urban concentrations in a European and global context. Functions of cities and interdependent relationships with surrounding territories. Urban structure through maps: implications for lifestyles and environmental impacts. Models of sustainable cities. The use of public space. Safe, healthy, and sustainable mobility.

Source: Ministry of Education and Vocational Training [33]. Own elaboration.

). Likewise, students are encouraged to understand the country’s climatic and landscape diversity, the impact of globalization, and the relevance of national and European environmental policies. Additionally, they develop competencies to interpret phenomena such as the climate emergency and natural hazards like earthquakes, floods, or droughts.

In “Earth and Environmental Sciences”, natural hazards are addressed from an ecological and systemic perspective, analyzing the relationship between natural processes and human activities. The subject includes foundational knowledge on climate change, biodiversity, waste management, and environmental impact, fostering shared responsibility in their mitigation (

Table 7. Foundational knowledge on natural hazards (“Earth and Environmental Sciences”).

Block B. Ecology and sustainability - The environment as an economic and social driver: importance of environmental impact assessment and sustainable management of resources and waste. The relationship between environmental, human, and animal health: the One Health. - Sustainability in everyday activities: use of sustainability indicators, lifestyles compatible and coherent with a sustainable development model. The concept of ecological footprint. - Local and global initiatives to promote a sustainable development model. - Climate change: links to the carbon cycle, causes and consequences for health, the economy, ecology, and society. Strategies and tools to address it: mitigation and adaptation. - Loss of biodiversity: environmental and social causes and consequences. - The problem of waste. Xenobiotic compounds such as plastics and their effects on nature and on human and animal health. Prevention and appropriate waste management.

Block C. History of the earth and life - Geological time: magnitude, scale, and dating methods. Problems of absolute and relative dating. - The history of the Earth: major geological events. - Methods and principles for studying the geological record: reconstruction of the geological history of a region. Geological principles. - The history of life on Earth: major changes in the main groups of living beings, explained from an evolutionary perspective.

Block D. Earth’s dynamics and composition - Structure, dynamics, and functions of the atmosphere. - Structure, composition, and dynamics of the geosphere. Direct and indirect methods of study. - Internal geological processes, landforms, and their relationship with plate tectonics. Types of boundaries, seismic and volcanic activity, and associated rocks. - External geological processes: causal agents and consequences on landforms. Main forms of relief modelling and geomorphology. - Pedogenesis: factors and processes of soil formation. Edaphodiversity and the importance of soil conservation. - Natural hazards: links to geological processes and human activities. Strategies of prediction, prevention, and mitigation.

Source: Ministry of Education and Vocational Training [33]. Own elaboration.

).

Regarding “Geology and Environmental Sciences”, the curriculum covers the structure of the Earth and internal and external geological processes, with particular emphasis on their relationship to natural hazards (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, or floods) and on the influence of human activity upon them (

Table 8. Foundational knowledge on natural hazards (“Geology and Environmental Sciences”).

Block B. Plate tectonics and internal geodynamics - Internal geodynamics: influence on landforms (volcanism, earthquakes, orogeny, continental movements, etc.). The theory of plate tectonics. - Internal geological processes and associated natural hazards: links to human activities. Importance of territorial planning.

Block C. External geological processes - External geological processes (weathering, pedogenesis, erosion, transport, and sedimentation) and their effects on landforms. - Landform modelling: relationship with geological agents, climate, and the properties and arrangement of predominant rocks. - External geological processes and associated natural hazards: links to human activities. Importance of territorial planning.

Block F. The Earth’s Fluid Layers - The atmosphere and hydrosphere: structure, dynamics, functions, influence climate, and importance for living beings. - Pollution of the atmosphere and hydrosphere: definition, types, causes, and consequences.

Block G. Resources and Their Sustainable Management - Environmental and social impacts of resource exploitation (water, landscape, mining, energy, soil, etc.): preventive, corrective, and compensatory measures.

Source: Ministry of Education and Vocational Training [22]. Own elaboration.

).

3.2.2. Specific Competencies

In the Baccalaureate stage, “Geography” addresses natural hazards from a territorial and critical perspective grounded in sustainability (

Table 9. Specific Competencies linked to natural hazards (“Baccalaureate”).

“Geography”
- SC 1. Identify Spain’s current and future ecosocial challenges, debating from a geographical perspective the messages received through official and unofficial, formal and informal channels, and developing critical thinking in order to transform unsustainable consumption patterns and adopt healthy lifestyles. - SC 2. Understand the complexity of geographic space by interpreting visual information sources, appreciating the diversity of natural and human-modified landscapes and valuing sustainability as a guiding principle in the relationships between natural ecosystems and human activity. - SC 5. Understand globalization as the context framing the evolution of economic systems and contemporary social behaviours, investigating their cause-and-effect relationships and creating original outputs that demonstrate interconnection and interdependence at all scales, to promote respect for human dignity and the environment as the foundation of global citizenship.
“Earth and Environmental Sciences”
- SC 4. Identify and apply strategies for problem-solving, critically analyzing the solutions and responses found and reformulating the procedure, when necessary, to explain phenomena related to biological, geological, and environmental sciences. - SC 5. Design, promote, and implement initiatives related to environmental conservation, sustainability, and health, based on the foundations of biological, geological, and environmental sciences, to foster sustainable and healthy lifestyles. - SC 6. Analyze elements of the geological record using scientific foundations, relating them to major events in Earth’s history and to the temporal scales in which they developed.
“Geology and Environmental Sciences”
- SC 5. Analyze the environmental impacts of specific actions and their effects on resource availability through field observations and information in different formats, and based on scientific principles, promote and adopt lifestyles compatible with sustainable development. - SC 6. Identify and analyze geological features of landforms through fieldwork or information in different formats, to explain geological phenomena, reconstruct geological history, make predictions, and identify potential geological hazards in each area.

Source: Ministry of Education and Vocational Training [22]. Own elaboration.

). SC 1 enables students to identify Spain’s ecosocial challenges, including phenomena exacerbated by climate change such as droughts, floods, or forest fires. SC 2 strengthens the understanding of geographic space as a complex construct, analyzing the interaction between ecosystems and human activity, and using visual and cartographic sources to identify vulnerable areas and promote sustainability in territorial planning. Finally, SC 5 situates natural hazards within the context of globalization, acknowledging their interdependent and cross-scale nature.

SC 4 in “Earth and Environmental Sciences” develops problem-solving skills to interpret earthquakes, floods, or volcanic eruptions, promoting the revision of hypotheses as new evidence appears. SC 6 highlights the long timescales of natural processes and their link to major geological events. Together, these competencies help form citizens able to understand, prevent, and respond to natural hazards critically and responsibly.

3.2.3. Pedagogical Approach and Interdisciplinarity

In the Baccalaureate stage, “Geography” adopts a critical and preventive approach, integrating the study of natural hazards with ecosocial challenges. It fosters geographical thinking that connects natural phenomena with their social implications, thereby promoting responsible decision-making (Figure 1). “Earth and Environmental Sciences” combine a preventive and critical perspective with scientific knowledge applied to sustainable action, encouraging the resolution of real-world problems, the assessment of their impacts, and the design of evidence-based mitigation strategies.

In “Geology and Environmental Sciences”, the approach is more descriptive and preventive, focused on the observation of landforms, fieldwork, and the analysis of environmental impacts. Emphasis is placed on technical understanding of geological and environmental processes that generate natural hazards and on the identification of scientific and preventive solutions, without necessarily examining their structural causes.

Despite these differences, the three subjects share a common objective: to educate citizens capable of understanding and responding to natural hazards from an informed and committed perspective. This shared purpose is structured around sustainability, environmental observation, and critical analytical capacity. However, while “Environmental Sciences” focus on the natural and technical foundations of risk, “Geography” introduces a social and discursive dimension, creating opportunities for interdisciplinary teaching proposals that integrate scientific observation, territorial interpretation, and ethical reflection.

4. Discussion and Conclusions

This study emerges from the need to strengthen territorial education, especially in the wake of events such as the 2024 cut-off low in Valencia, which revealed shortcomings in geographic literacy and the culture of prevention. Its objective was to propose a more coherent, transversal, and contextualized curricular integration that prepares students to face current and future climate challenges. The analysis of the Royal Decrees regulating the minimum teaching requirements in Secondary Education and Baccalaureate has made it possible to clearly identify not only the potential and progress achieved, but also the limitations and opportunities regarding the treatment of natural hazards in the Spanish educational system.

With respect to Hypothesis 1 (H1), the findings confirm that foundational knowledge related to natural hazards is limited and concentrated in “Geography”. Although the curriculum recognizes the need to understand natural phenomena and their relationship with human activity, cross-disciplinary integration remains relatively weak. There is a tendency to relegate these contents to scientific subjects, which prevents a comprehensive understanding of risk as a social, environmental, and cultural phenomenon. Therefore, H1 is confirmed: natural hazards are addressed within specific disciplinary areas, without yet achieving full interdisciplinary integration.

Nonetheless, progress can also be observed in the articulation between educational levels, showing a conceptual and competence-based progression rooted in experiential learning. In this regard, stronger coordination between theoretical content and practical student work across subjects dealing with natural hazards would be highly valuable, while respecting the specific contributions each discipline: more analytical in “Geology and Environmental Sciences” and “Earth and Environmental Sciences”, and more social and territorial in “Geography”. Developing a shared portfolio of practical activities would be a highly valuable didactic initiative.

Hypothesis 2 (H2), which posited a degree of transversal integration in the SC related to natural hazards, is partially confirmed. Competencies across different stages show a coherent competence-based approach that fosters the development of scientific thinking, ethical reflection, and responsible action in the face of adverse natural phenomena. In Secondary Education, the competencies of “Geography and History” and “Biology and Geology” combine territorial and scientific perspective on risk, while “Education in Civic and Ethical Values” consolidate ethical reflection on vulnerability, shared responsibility, and sustainability. Although, this convergence is not always fully coordinated at the curricular level, it nonetheless represents progress toward transversality, partially confirming H2. At the Baccalaureate level, the competencies of “Geography”, “Earth and Environmental Sciences”, and “Geology and Environmental Sciences” consolidate this trend, integrating scientific understanding with social critique and responsible decision-making.

With respect Hypothesis 3 (H3), the findings confirm a gradual incorporation of preventive and critical perspectives as students advance through the system. Subjects such as “Geography” or “Education in Civic and Ethical Values” enable risks to be contextualized socially and environmentally, fostering reflection on environmental justice and civic co-responsibility. In this sense, H3 is partially confirmed: a preventive approach is consolidated at intermediate stages, while a more critical perspective emerges in the later years.

Overall, the results reveal a coherent, though uneven, curricular progression. Nevertheless, the lack of genuine transversality and the limited continuity between stages persist as structural weaknesses. Incorporating an ecosocial approach that connects scientific knowledge with ethical and civic dimensions would allow for the consolidation of a truly transformative education, as suggested by González-Reyes and Gómez-Chuliá [29].

These findings are aligned with recent literature in environmental and risk education, which calls for moving beyond descriptive models toward critical, participatory pedagogies that foster action and community resilience against climate change [14,34,35]. Education must prepare students to interpret, prevent, and confront natural phenomena through collective co-responsibility, in coherence with the culture and particularities of each territory [36]. The urgent need to strengthen geographic [19,20], environmental education [21], and the training of future teachers in risk education—especially in the current context of climate change [34]—is clearly highlighted. Likewise, it is essential to incorporate, from the earliest educational stages, knowledge that enables students to understand their environment, anticipate risks, and act in an informed manner, thereby ensuring curricular coherence and continuity [37].

This study identifies several areas for improving the curricular integration of natural hazards. Thus, it recommends fostering interdisciplinary approaches that connect scientific, ethical, and territorial knowledge; employing active methodologies such as projects and case studies; adapting content to the local context; strengthening the ecosocial dimension across all stages; developing specific teaching resources; training teachers in environmental education; and assessing integrated competencies. These actions would enable a deeper, more critical, and more committed understanding of natural hazards from the perspective of active and responsible citizenship. Furthermore, transversality must be promoted across all disciplines involved (Geography, History, Biology, Geology, etc.), under the coordination of Geography, the discipline in which the comprehensive study of natural hazards, physical, human, economic and environmental, originated.

Meiyuyang [38] emphasizes the importance of competency-oriented climate change education, highlighting transversal skills such as critical thinking and problem-solving. This aligns with the findings of the present study, which reveal fragmented curricular treatment of natural hazards in Spain. Similarly, Buckler and Creech [39], in their final report on the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development, stress the need for coherence, integration, and transformative approaches across educational systems. Together, these works reinforce the argument that risk education must be transversal, locally grounded, and action-oriented, bridging descriptive knowledge with preventive and critical reflection to strengthen resilience among students.

Nevertheless, the research has limitations, as it focuses exclusively on Royal Decrees establishing minimum teaching requirements, without considering regional adaptations. These are particularly significant in regions such as the Valencian Community, where flood risk is frequent and could be more explicitly represented in regional curricula. Future research should therefore examine Early Childhood Education (up to age 6) and Primary Education (ages 6 to 12); as well as compare regional curricula to identify how natural hazards are contextualized according to the geographic and social characteristics of each territory.

Future research should address several key challenges to deepen understanding of how natural hazards are integrated into education. Incorporating empirical evidence from schools directly affected by extreme events—such as those impacted by the 2024 cut-off low in Valencia—would provide valuable insights into how curricular guidelines translate into real classroom practices. Longitudinal studies could further illuminate how students’ preventive and critical competencies evolve across educational stages.

Furthermore, the study should be expanded at the internationally, contrasting the Spanish curriculum with those of countries that have developed more advanced educational models in risk management and climate resilience, such as Chile, Japan [40], New Zealand or Australia [41]. Such comparison would allow the identification of good practices, alternative competence frameworks, and pedagogical strategies that could be adapted to the Spanish context [42]. Together, these lines of research would contribute to enriching the curricular debate and consolidating an education that is better prepared, contextualized, and committed to global climate challenges [43,44]. Advancing these lines of inquiry will contribute to designing more coherent, equitable, and territorially grounded educational responses to current and future climate challenges.

Extreme climate events, such as the 2024 cut-off low in Valencia, reflect a global environmental crisis that directly affects society [45]. In this context, education becomes a strategic tool for understanding, anticipating, and managing risks from a territorial and civic perspective. The curriculum must explicitly and transversally integrate content on natural hazards, climate change, and resilience, revising competencies and methodologies across all educational stages. Ultimately, educating climate risk is both an ethical and pedagogical responsibility. Preparing students for future extreme events means preparing them to care for, understand, and transform their environment. Education is a fundamental pillar for building more informed and safer societies, capable of responding rationally to increasing risks and ensuring prevention and resilience in the current context of climate change.