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Article

Geomorphological Mapping and Social Sciences: A Qualitative Review

by
Laura Franceschi
1,*,
Alberto Bosino
1,
Manuel La Licata
2 and
Mattia De Amicis
1
1
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 1, 20126 Milan, Italy
2
Working Group on Soil Erosion and Feedbacks, Landscape Functioning, Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF), Eberswalder Straße 84, 15374 Müncheberg, Germany
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Geosciences 2025, 15(7), 271; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15070271
Submission received: 24 June 2025 / Revised: 14 July 2025 / Accepted: 15 July 2025 / Published: 18 July 2025
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Abstract

The number of publications in the scientific literature dealing with geomorphological mapping has increased over the last two decades. Although geomorphological maps are utilised in various contexts, such as hazard assessment, archaeology, and tourism, there is a noticeable lack of interaction between geomorphological products and the social sciences. This study aims to provide a qualitative assessment of the literature on geomorphological maps published in the 2000s with the intent of identifying the purpose of mapping and its field of application. Additionally, a comparative analysis was conducted of the articles relating to both geomorphological maps and social issues to identify the tools that facilitate this interdisciplinary collaboration. The results facilitated the identification of the primary fields of interest for map production, showing that only a limited number of articles employed geomorphological maps for social purposes, for instance, enhancing risk awareness and educating the population about natural hazards. Moreover, the analysis reveals that only a limited number of geomorphological maps are intended to be accessible to people without a high degree of education in earth sciences. In particular, this study highlights a lack of attention to non-specialist users who may struggle to understand the information contained in geomorphological maps. This issue limits the dissemination of geomorphological maps, which are, however, vital for territorial planning and practical purposes. The analyses prompted the authors to consider novel applications of research tools to enhance the dissemination of geomorphological maps, even among non-specialist users.

1. Introduction

Geomorphology is the science that studies Earth’s surface processes and landforms, as well as their origins and evolution [1]. The importance of geomorphology lies in its ability to study and interpret the past and future evolution of landforms, as well as the causes that generate and modify them [2]. One of the main outputs of geomorphology is the cartographic representation through the geomorphological maps, detailing the characteristics of surface landforms and related deposits [3]. In particular, geomorphological maps provide a spatial overview of the landforms, highlighting areas with geomorphological peculiarities, and are essential tools for understanding the evolution of the landscape, e.g., [4,5]. Despite the relatively recent advent of geomorphological mapping, it has already undergone a significant evolution. After extensive experimentation conducted in the 1900s, geomorphological mapping has undergone a profound transformation led by the progress in geospatial technologies, moving from schematic representations based on direct observations [6] to detailed maps obtained through the integration of modern technologies [7]. Indeed, the use of satellite images, high-resolution aerial photographs, and digital elevation models (DEMs) allows for a three-dimensional and dynamic representation of landforms. In addition, geographic information systems (GISs) have revolutionised the processing, analysis, and visualisation of geomorphological data, enabling greater accuracy and interoperability between platforms, data, and users, as well as more efficient sharing and use of spatial information, e.g., [8,9]. In addition, the enhanced acquisition of geomorphological data has facilitated the expansion of the application of geomorphological maps into other areas of environmental research [10]. That is, geomorphological maps are increasingly used as a basis for natural hazard assessment, e.g., [11], ecosystem management, e.g., [12], soil use assessment, e.g., [13], land planning, e.g., [14], and geotourism, e.g., [15], among others. Despite numerous studies and applications highlighting the benefits of interdisciplinary collaboration between earth sciences, e.g., [16,17,18], particularly with geomorphology, e.g., [14,19,20] and social sciences, a significant gap in the interaction between earth science and the social sciences remains evident. Nevertheless, this integration holds significant potential for development and represents a field of growing importance [21].
The definition of social science can be very broad. According to Encyclopaedia Britannica (www.britannica.com, accessed on 16 July 2025), social sciences are defined as a set of disciplines that study, at least, one aspect of the functioning of societies and the interaction between individuals, using empirical and analytical research methods to improve the understanding of the social world. Generally, it includes disciplines as diverse as sociology, cultural anthropology, historical sciences, political sciences, economics, and also human geography, especially in its focus on the spatial dimensions of social interaction.
The growing interest in geomorphological mapping within the environmental sciences has led to numerous applications [22]. However, the role of the social context remains unclear. For this reason, we conducted a qualitative literature review, a widely used tool for synthesising knowledge in interdisciplinary fields and identifying gaps in emerging topics [23]. This approach allowed us to systematically analyse current applications of geomorphological mapping and verify whether the integration of social aspects is indeed underrepresented.
In the field of geomorphology, the literature reviews are typically conducted by areas of expertise as fluvial geomorphology, e.g., [24,25,26], coastal geomorphology, e.g., [27,28] and sediment dynamics, e.g., [29,30,31,32], etc. Moreover, reviews in geomorphology are typically aimed at mapping the current state of knowledge regarding the employment of specific instruments, e.g., [33,34,35]. Only in 2023 was a comprehensive and general review of geomorphological mapping conducted by Quesada-Román and Peralta-Reyes (2023) [36], providing a quantitative analysis of the literature. The study mentioned above offers a bibliometric analysis of 735 research articles on geomorphological mapping, providing insights into trends in publication, the distribution of journals, common keywords, and frequently cited papers.
Instead, our work, through an adaption of the thematic analysis by Braun and Clarke (2006) [37], here indicated as hierarchical coding frame (HCF), focuses primarily on analysing the content of a sample of articles, identifying emerging trends, evaluating interdisciplinarity with the social sciences, and suggesting new research perspectives in the field of geomorphological mapping. This study, considering its potential integration with the existing bibliometric analysis within the existing literature, could facilitate a more comprehensive understanding of the current state of the art in the literature on geomorphological maps.
The final purpose of this article is to explore the current state of the recent literature on geomorphological mapping, answering the following questions: (i) For what purposes are geomorphological maps produced nowadays? (ii) Are geomorphological maps used for social aims? (iii) What are the purposes of geomorphological–social mapping? Can the tools necessary to achieve these purposes be identified? These questions will guide our qualitative literature review to extend current knowledge about the dissemination and applications of geomorphological mapping and suggest possible directions for a more conscious use of geomorphological maps for social purposes and the development of new interdisciplinary research areas.

2. Methods

The research is based on the necessity to (i) qualitatively assess the literature about the production of geomorphological maps, (ii) understand their subsequent social use, and (iii) evaluate the instruments used in the “social–geomorphological maps” field. The qualitative analysis was performed through an adaptation of the thematic analysis [37,38,39,40,41,42,43], here called hierarchical coding frame (HCF). Subsequently, to respond to the first two research questions above, the HCF was performed on two different literature samples. Hence, to answer the third question, a comparative analysis was carried out [44,45]. The general workflow is reported in Figure 1.

2.1. Development of Hierarchical Coding Frame (HCF) as an Adaptation of Thematic Analysis

2.1.1. Thematic Analysis Description

Thematic analysis is a multi-stage research methodology useful for summarising the key features of large datasets [41]. This investigation method allows the systematic extraction of significant insights from the data by focusing on key themes. It is particularly useful in exploring the complex nature of the collected data [43].
In general, thematic analysis consists of six iterative phases. A brief description of the process of thematic analysis as developed by Nowell et al. (2017) [43] will be provided. It begins with familiarisation with the data, identifying patterns and meanings, and documenting preliminary evidence (familiarising yourself with your data). Subsequently, initial codes are generated by organising the data into specific categories using a systematic approach (generation of initial codes). Afterwards, the codes are grouped to form main themes and sub-themes (searching for themes). Furthermore, the themes are reviewed for consistency and relevance to the data, and any changes are made (reviewing themes). The definition and naming of the themes allow the meaning of each theme to be deepened and clarified by assigning descriptive names (defining and naming themes). Finally, a report is produced to systematically present the results, integrating extracts from the data and linking them to the existing literature (producing the report).

2.1.2. Enhancement: HCF Structure

Even though this methodology is well-established [37,38,46], an adaptation was required to better align with the specific objectives of our literature review, modifying the steps described in Nowell et al. (2017) [43]. To differentiate our adaptation from thematic analysis, we named it hierarchical coding frame (HCF).
The HCF was designed with two principal objectives: (i) to facilitate a more detailed categorisation of the existing literature and (ii) to make this methodology more easily applicable outside the field of social sciences.
The first step in applying the HCF to the literature involves formulating a useful query to identify the appropriate literature sample (creation of dataset). The second step involves analysing literature data to gain insight about the content and identify recurring topics and patterns and it provides the basis for more detailed coding and analysis (preliminary examination of data). The third step involves answering the question: “What is the overall purpose of the article analysed?”. The use of a question allows the condensation of complex textual data into a concise sentence, the category, which summarises recurring aspects, thereby facilitating a more profound understanding of the phenomenon under investigation (development of categories). Categories, as a first order of coding, represent the highest level of generalisation. They are used to group the literature based on overarching aims. The fourth stage begins after clustering articles into categories and involves the question: “What is the specific purpose of this group of articles?”. The answer helps the researcher to identify themes related to texts with similar end purposes (searching and developing themes). Themes are considered the second level of classification; they group the articles with similar specific purposes and help refine the understanding within each category. Finally, after clustering into themes, answering the question: “What is the deeper purpose of this group of papers?”. The question enabled us to identify objects that relate texts with similar practices (development of objects). Objects represent the most granular level of the classification, and they are recurring conceptual or practical elements that appear across the texts within a theme. The HCF concludes with the creation of a schematic model to capture the content of the selected literature sample (deducing a conceptual model).
In summary, HCF is a qualitative approach to literature review based on a recurring question, such as “What is the purpose?”. This question, at each stage of analysis, allows for the identification of: (i) categories (first-order coding), (ii) themes (second-order coding), and, when appropriate, (iii) themes (third-order coding). If an article exhibits multiple purposes, it is attributed to the predominant category, theme, or subject based on the search phase. The researcher can determine the number of repetitions based on the initial sample size and the desired level of depth. A summary of the steps described above, along with a comparison to the structure of thematic analysis [43], is presented in Table 1.

2.1.3. HCF Validation

The introduction of all the novelties described in Chapter 2.1.2 necessitated a validation phase, which was conducted empirically. We tested the HCF using a sample obtained from the Scopus search engine (www.scopus.com, accessed on 16 July 2025) through the query ‘Scopus: TITLE-ABS-KEY (‘geomorphological map*’) AND PUBYEAR > 1999 AND PUBYEAR < 2025 AND (LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, ‘ar’))’. The number of items selected for the test was determined by applying the formula “Sample size determination with correction for finite populations” [47,48]. Indeed, Krejcie and Morgan (1970) [48] developed a formula based on statistical principles that can determine the requisite sample size to represent a known population size adequately. Particularly, they developed Table 2 for convenient reference, applicable to populations of varying sizes. According to the authors’ studies [47,48], Table 2 shows that the results of the analysis performed on a sample size of S are representative of the entire population of N, with a 95% confidence level and a margin of error of ±5%.
Consequently, through consultation of the aforementioned table, the necessary sample size for our research could be readily identified. Next, the ability of the HCF to generate categories and themes was examined, assessing whether, as expected, its application could provide a more structured and comprehensive view of the dominant theme in the selected sample, thereby facilitating a critical and coherent evaluation of the analysed literature.

2.2. Literature Analysis

As shown in Figure 1, the literature search involved the analysis of scientific articles exclusively dealing with geomorphological mapping following Quesada-Román and Peralta-Reyes (2023) [36] and entailed the identification, analysis, and in-depth assessment of scientific literature dealing with geomorphological mapping related to the social sciences.

2.2.1. Analysis on Geomorphological Mapping Literature Through HCF Methodology

The analysis used Scopus (www.scopus.com, accessed on 16 July 2025), a source-neutral database of abstracts and citations with an advanced research system. Scopus was chosen as a search engine because it resulted in fewer inconsistencies regarding content verification compared to Web of Science and Google Scholar [49]. Furthermore, Scopus provides complimentary access to author and source data, facilitating greater public accessibility [50]. While certain Scopus features require a personal or institutional subscription, this did not constrain our methodological workflow. This clarification is provided to ensure full transparency and facilitate the replicability of our study.
To conduct a broader possible search on Scopus, the ‘search within article title, abstract, and keywords’ option was selected. The search term used was “geomorphological map*”; the asterisk was included to indicate that the term was intended to be more inclusive in the bibliographic research [51,52,53]. Indeed, the use of the asterisk in Scopus enables the replacement of a group of characters [52]. Entering “geomorphological map*” as the search key, it is possible to be certain that terms such as “geomorphological map”, “geomorphological maps”, “geomorphological mapping”, “geomorphological mapper”, and “geomorphological mapped” would also be included in the results.
We selected only the English-written articles that span the period from 1 January 2000 to 31 December 2024, following the methodology provided by Quesada-Román and Peralta-Reyes (2023) [36]. However, a modification was made to this methodology, and we decided to use only open-access literature. This choice is justified because, for a qualitative analysis of the literature, it is essential for the researcher to have easy access to the full text. In addition, this choice facilitated the replicability of the analysis. In addition, consultation of Table 2 [47,48] was used to determine that the analysis of the open-access literature alone was sufficiently representative of the entire sample returned by the unrestricted query. We used the following query: ‘Scopus: TITLE-ABS-KEY ((geomorphological map*)) AND PUBYEAR > 1999 AND PUBYEAR < 2025 AND (LIMIT-TO (OA, ‘all’)) AND (LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, ‘ar’)) AND (LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE, ‘English’))’.
All the research outputs were collected in a dedicated library on Zotero (www.zotero.org, accessed on 16 July 2025) to facilitate the management of results due to their large number. We used Zotero because it is a free, open-source software designed to assist researchers, students, and writers in managing and organising their references, citations, and research materials. In this research, the Zotero library helped generate an Excel database that collects the following information for each article: publication title, author, year, journal, Scopus URL, DOI, abstract, and keywords. The Excel database, designated as Dataset I (Figure 2), was adopted as the basis for qualitative analysis of the selected literature sample.
For Dataset I, the HCF analysis focused predominantly on the title, abstract, and keywords of the articles. The categories were initially established through a process of deductive coding, whereby the question “What is the general purpose of this paper?” was used. Subsequently, the themes were developed as a second-order code using one of two questions based on the suitability of the category: “What is the purpose of the description proposed in this paper?” or “What is the purpose of the application proposed in this article?”. The questions were asked in line with the research objective to obtain qualitative analyses that subdivided the articles according to their content. Finally, the results of this research were collected in a repository called Repository I.

2.2.2. Analysis on Geomorphological Mapping and Social Literature Through HCF Methodology

To answer our second research question, the second phase of research is exclusively related to scientific articles that addressed the advancement of geomorphological mapping for social applications. Furthermore, to ensure the greatest possible representativeness of the analysis, both open-access and articles under embargo were included at this stage. The used query was TITLE-ABS-KEY (‘geomorphological map*’ AND ‘social’) AND PUBYEAR > 1999 AND PUBYEAR < 2025 AND (LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE, ‘English’)) AND (LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, ‘ar’)). The choice of the Boolean operator AND is justified by the need to keep both subjects together. In fact, in Scopus, the AND operator allows two or more words to be linked. In this way, the database returns all the indexed documents that contain all the entered words, not just one of them. Some articles obtained from the second query used (‘TITLE-ABS-KEY (‘geomorphological map*’ AND ‘social’) etc.) were also included in the previous search conducted with the query ‘Scopus: TITLE-ABS-KEY (((geomorphological map*))’. This overlap is justified by the fact that the second query represents a specification of the first, focusing on articles that include the term social. Consequently, open-access and English-language articles that meet the conditions of the first query are also automatically included in the results of the second query, which adds a more specific thematic filter. Hence, before performing subsequent analyses, all items already in the dataset were removed from the Excel spreadsheet to prevent duplicate items from being analysed a second time.
In this instance, all the articles yielded from this query were collated directly in an Excel spreadsheet, with the following data provided for each: title, author, year, journal, Scopus URL, DOI, abstract, and keywords. At this point, the Excel spreadsheet, called Dataset II, underwent two iterations of the HCF analysis. This made it possible to develop both categories and themes for these articles (Figure 3).
The search key entered was ‘social’ rather than ‘social sciences’ in order not to be too selective and to avoid excluding important articles from the dataset to be analysed. However, this choice also included articles that did not strictly belong to the social sciences, so the HCF had to be run. The results of the HCF analysis are included in Repository II.

2.3. Comparative Analysis

A comparative analysis addressed the third research question. The goal was to identify the specific purposes of socio-geomorphological maps and determine how these maps can be improved to better meet the needs of end users. An in-depth study of the tools used in the socio-geomorphological literature was necessary to understand the state of the art in this interdisciplinary field and to be able to hypothesise new frontiers of collaboration between these two fields of science. For this reason, a third dataset, called the Compositum Dataset, was created, which collects all articles assignable to social science topics from the iteration of the HCF analysis on the two previously analysed literature samples (Figure 4).
The first analysis conducted on the compositum dataset using the HCF methodology was helpful in developing the third-order coding. All the results are collected in Repository III, where, for each article, the following information is provided: research phase, Title, Author, Year, Journal, URL, DOI, and III order coding.
A subsequent analysis was conducted on the compositum dataset following the methodology proposed by Ahi and Searcy (2013) [44] and Hamidova et al. (2024) [45] comparing the use of cartographic and topographic data, aerial and satellite imagery, environmental data, and social surveys within the articles to understand the spread of these in relation to the article’s purpose. This comparison was crucial for determining whether the instruments under examination shared common features or employed similar tools, and whether specific tools facilitated greater user engagement with socio-geomorphological maps.

3. Results

3.1. Validation of Hierarchical Coding Frame (HCF): Results and Evidence of Reliability

The validation phase of the methodology was crucial to ensure that the HCF presented here was adequate to develop categories and themes consistent with our proposed literature review. The query selected for HCF validation returned 2707 articles (results obtained in February 2025). After consulting Table 2, we considered it sufficient to analyse 341 articles. Subjecting this sample to HCF analysis yielded 4 categories and 7 themes.
During the validation phase, the categories and themes were briefly explained, as the analysed articles were solely intended to assess methodological efficacy and were not part of the comprehensive analysis aimed at answering the primary research questions. The developed categories are:
  • Descriptive studies, including all literature presenting new geomorphological maps, e.g., [54], new methodologies for geomorphological mapping, e.g., [55], or new disciplinary areas of interest, such as urban geomorphology [56].
  • Applicative studies, including all the literature presenting application models of geomorphological maps, e.g., [57], or papers in which geomorphological maps are used in an interdisciplinary context, e.g., [58], or articles in which maps are used as a cultural vehicle for the dissemination of knowledge [59].
  • Other studies, including all those articles that are not deeply related to geomorphology. The presence of this category is explained by the fact that Scopus searches for keywords within the metadata. This means that an article may be included in the results even if the key appears only in references or in secondary descriptions, without necessarily representing the main topic of the article.
  • Unclassifiable, including all articles that do not present abstracts or whose site is not accessible. These conditions made it impossible to develop any order of coding for these articles.
Due to the relevance of the topics, only the first two categories were developed. The themes developed for the descriptive studies category are:
  • Terrestrial studies, including all descriptive articles dealing with terrestrial geomorphology.
  • Marine studies, including all descriptive articles dealing with coastal and marine geomorphology.
  • Space studies, including all descriptive articles dealing with extra-terrestrial geomorphology (e.g., geomorphology of Venus, Mars, and so on).
  • The themes developed for the applicative studies category are:
  • Land and source management, including all applicative articles dealing with territorial management.
  • Archaeology, including all applicative articles dealing with archaeology.
  • Geotourism, including all applicative articles dealing with geotourism.
  • Social sciences, including all applicative articles dealing with a broad interest in the communities.
The categories and themes shown in Figure 5 were developed using the HCF methodology solely for validation purposes. As a result, we concluded that the HCF methodology had successfully passed the validation stage. This achievement has enabled us to fully develop all the coding in accordance with our expectations.

3.2. Literature Analysis Results

3.2.1. Results of Qualitative Analysis on the Literature Dealing with “Geomorphological Map*”

The objective of this phase of the study was to conduct a qualitative analysis of the global literature on geomorphological cartography produced between 2000 and 2024, with a focus on its interdisciplinarity with the social sciences.
The analysis revealed a general increase in the production of articles about geomorphological maps. The graph in Figure 6 illustrates the general trend derived from a temporal analysis of Dataset I, which the authors selected as the only one in this paper that could be considered consistently comparable with the analysis proposed in the study conducted by Quesada-Román and Peralta-Reyes (2023) [36].
A preliminary qualitative analysis was obtained from a comprehensive search of geomorphological mapping topics on the Scopus database. The query used, ‘Scopus: TITLE-ABS-KEY ((geomorphological map*))’, returned 3812 articles (results obtained in February 2025). Applying the restrictions derived from the methodology developed by Quesada-Román and Peralta-Reyes (2023) [36]—time restriction (2000–2004), restriction by type of language (English articles only), and the Open Access condition, the number of articles returned with the new query was reduced to 957 articles (results obtained in February 2025). According to Table 2 [48], which indicates that 351 articles are sufficient to represent a population of 4000, the selected sample can be considered representative of the examined literature as a whole.
Hence, a total of 957 articles underwent HCF analysis, resulting in the identification of four primary categories through a first-order coding process. The first coding sequence is necessary for the development of the categories useful for the thematic grouping of the articles.
The first category is descriptive studies (727 papers). Each paper of this cluster employs geomorphological cartography as a means of delineating a novel study or discovery. Indeed, we classified these studies as belonging to this category, despite their differing focus, because they employ geomorphological mapping in a descriptive context and use it as a visual representation of the current condition of the territory [60] or the description of its evolution [61]. Some studies presented here employ geomorphological mapping to analyse the spatial distribution of forms and their interrelationships with forms from different origins [62]. The category of descriptive studies also encompasses articles that present novel methodologies and tools for geomorphological mapping [63].
The second category is applicative studies (212 papers). The selected articles focused on applicative practices that could provide tools to scientists, communities, and stakeholders. The articles included in this category frequently encompass additional disciplines, thereby imparting a more applied character to geomorphological maps. One study in this category proposed an innovative model for the geomorphological mapping of landslides in highly urbanised contexts, using an object-oriented approach (LOOM) that enables a more comprehensive understanding of the relationships between landslides and affected slopes [64]. In this instance, the use of geomorphological maps facilitates a comprehensive illustration of landslide phenomena, thereby fostering interdisciplinary collaboration between scientists and practitioners through the implementation of transdisciplinary geotopographic data standards. Furthermore, this category encompasses studies that employ geomorphological mapping as a means of deepening comprehension of both the physical and cultural aspects of land resources. For instance, the geomorphological maps can promote sustainable land use for agricultural purposes [65] or enhance the accessibility to the geological and cultural heritage assets of specific territories [66].
The third category is other studies (14 papers). The third group of papers encompasses all papers whose analysis does not enable us to understand the purpose for which geomorphological maps were produced. This means that an article may be included in the results even if the key appears only in references or in secondary descriptions, without necessarily representing its main topic. For example, in Dataset I, there is an article whose primary purpose is to quantify the benefits of introducing GIS methods in earth science field courses [67]. Even though the word “geomorphological map” appeared in the keywords, it did not represent the article’s main research topic; therefore, it was placed in this category.
Finally, there is a fourth group that includes papers in which the absence of one of the elements analysed did not allow the paper to be classified. This category, named unclassifiable, counts 4 scientific papers.
A brief summary of the results of the first-order coding is provided in Figure 7.
To enhance the qualitative comprehension of the articles belonging to Dataset I, a second coding scheme was devised for all articles falling within the initial two categories. A second coding order was then developed for 939 articles, 727 of which were assigned to the category descriptive studies and 212 to the category applicative studies. From here, the HCF methodology was employed to develop eight main themes useful for the qualitative description of all scientific papers under analysis. In the descriptive studies, three key themes were identified: terrestrial studies, marine studies, and space studies. In the applicative studies, the themes include archaeology, land and resource management, tourism and cultural interests, artificial intelligence, and social sciences. A brief overview of the development of the theme is shown in Figure 8.
The terrestrial studies theme encompasses theoretical studies using geomorphological cartography to describe terrestrial forms and processes, as well as new research methods in this field. In this theme, the authors have included studies on paleoenvironments, paleoclimates, and articles about the official publication of new geomorphological maps. For instance, the article written by Novak et al. (2018) [68] presents a comprehensive geomorphological map of quaternary deposits in the Planica-Tamar Valley. In particular, the geomorphological map is pivotal for understanding the processes that shape the mountain landscape, providing a framework for sedimentation influenced by climate change and the region’s geological setting. The theme of marine studies includes theoretical research on marine geomorphology, bathymetry, and new methods and research strategies developed in this field. Another representative example is the study provided by Cabrera et al. (2024) [69], which illustrates a geomorphological mapping approach conducted with a hybrid ROV. This mapping revealed Miocene and Plio-Quaternary stratigraphic structures, as well as fault systems that significantly influenced the formation of the canyon. The third theme is space studies, which includes articles that investigate the geomorphology of Mars, Venus, Titan, and other celestial bodies. In some instances, these maps help define the boundaries of mineral units, indicating the evolution of the Martian landscape associated with distinct phases of alteration and erosion [70]. This is vital to understanding the planet’s geological and hydrological history. A review of the abstracts of these articles revealed that the authors aimed to engage either an academic audience or an audience with a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.
The theme of land and resource management encompasses research utilising geomorphological maps to enhance resource management and spatial planning. This theme covers many topics, including engineering, urban planning, and agriculture. For instance, in the upper central plain of the Chao Phraya River Basin in Thailand, the use of geomorphological maps has enabled the delineation of areas exhibiting distinctive hydrogeological attributes, thereby facilitating the acquisition of essential data for the sustainable management of regional water resources [71]. The theme of archaeology includes all the studies where geomorphology was used to enhance archaeological research. For example, the combination of geomorphological mapping with geoarchaeological and sedimentary analyses has facilitated the reconstruction of the landscape evolution of the Quriyat coastal plain during the mid-late Holocene [72]. This has provided an explanation for the low density of archaeological sites in the area despite the region’s ancient settlement history [72]. The theme of tourism and cultural interests collects research in which geomorphological maps have been utilised as a tool for cultural and tourism growth. The articles in question typically present case studies that concentrate their analysis on a particular and circumscribed portion of the territory. This is performed to map and thus foster the development and dissemination of geomorphological knowledge of the territory in question. The AI theme includes articles introducing machine and deep learning techniques to geomorphological mapping. This is a theme with articles that deal with different geomorphological aspects, but have in common the use of artificial intelligence tools. In particular, they focus on new fields of applications, for example, remote sensing [73], case studies [74], or validation of new mapping techniques [75].
Finally, the theme of social studies collects papers that utilise geomorphological mapping to enhance community conditions. As shown in Figure 8, this theme is one of the least represented in the literature and only seven articles were included in this theme. They are the works of Bollati et al. (2017) [76]; Booth and Brayson (2011) [77]; Carabella et al. (2021) [78]; Díaz Balocchi et al. (2020) [79]; Frodella et al. (2020) [80]; Griffiths and Abraham (2008) [81].
We conducted a careful reading of the abstracts of all the articles in the applied studies category. Although the approach of this group of articles is still aimed at specialists, there is often a desire on the part of their authors to provide useful tools for other potential interested parties, whether experts in other disciplines or non-experts in geomorphology. For example, in the article by Cunha et al. (2017) [82], geomorphological mapping provides the basis for carrying out studies of the stratigraphic sequence in the ‘Vale do Forno’ area. In this case, the results obtained from the research were designed to provide an interface with experts in other disciplines. However, some articles aimed to raise awareness among non-expert end-users by presenting geomorphological products and complementary results, providing various management planning tools for risk reduction strategies [80]. All the results obtained from two repeated runs of HCF on Dataset I are contained in Repository I, which includes both the categories developed for each of the articles in the first dataset and the themes assigned to them.

3.2.2. Results of Qualitative Analysis of the Literature Dealing with “Geomorphological Map*” and “Social Studies”

The results of the comprehensive review derived from the articles included in Dataset I suggest that ‘social science’ is the most underrepresented topic in the geomorphological mapping literature when considering the annual distribution of literature production. To substantiate this evidence, a second search was conducted, encompassing all available literature and focusing on articles pertaining to both geomorphological and social science mapping. The additional literature search on Scopus (performed in February 2025) resulted in a new dataset, called Dataset II. It consisted of 11 articles that underwent qualitative analysis using the HCF methodology applied twice.
Indeed, of the 11 articles resulting from the second research phase, 2 can be classified as belonging to the category of ‘descriptive studies’, while the remaining 9 can be classified as belonging to the category of ‘applicative studies’. The second HCF permitted the allocation of themes, as shown in Figure 9. In this case, among the papers with a descriptive purpose, one fell under the theme of terrestrial studies [83] and one under marine studies [84]. Of the nine papers classified as applications, three pertain to land and resource management [85,86,87], one is related to the theme of archaeology [88], one is related to the theme of tourism [89], and four can be included in the theme of social sciences [90,91,92,93].

3.3. The Comparative Analysis of Research Materials

The third phase of analysis was conducted on the compositum dataset to identify the specific objectives of the socio-geomorphological maps in the literature and assess which tools were fielded by interdisciplinary collaboration. This third dataset comprises 11 papers, that is, all the articles that were classified under the social sciences theme based on the second coding scheme previously established. Specifically, seven articles were identified through the HCF applied to Dataset I, while four were the result of the HCF applied to Dataset II.
Subsequently, the final analysis utilising the HCF methodology was conducted on the compositum dataset, encompassing the entirety of the textual content within the articles, thereby facilitating the development of the third coding order. From the results, it was possible to identify three main objects as the third order of coding: risk education and awareness, residing in the production of the map to enhance the user’s involvement, and supporting administration in the risk management (Figure 10).
There were six papers presenting studies where geomorphological maps and information are used as tools to raise public and administrative awareness, aiming to educate stakeholders about risk and enhance risk management [76,77,80,91,92,93]. They are all grouped into the object risk education and awareness. A representative example of this group is provided by the work carried out by Andrade and Szlafsztein (2015) [91]. This study demonstrates how citizens’ understanding of risk and damage contributes to adaptation strategies that improve urban resilience and sustainable development by initiating a process of integrated hazard management. In particular, this study proposes interdisciplinary methods for integrating local community perceptions with GIS systems in flood mapping, thereby fostering closer collaboration between citizens, scientists and policymakers for more effective risk management. The work of Bollati et al. (2017) [76], combined with the utilisation of geomorphological mapping and geological heritage analysis, facilitates the dissemination of knowledge in an educational context. This combination is beneficial for identifying effective practices in managing mountainous environments, such as the Alps, and enables the enumeration and assessment of geomorphosites. In this article, geophysical information was simplified to reach a general audience, thereby improving their understanding of geomorphic processes and associated risks, and enriching their experience of the mountain environment.
Only two of the papers analysed have as a research interest the possibility of redesigning geomorphological maps to make them understandable to end users; for this reason, they were grouped under the theme of redesigning the maps production to enhance the user’s involvement [81,94]. It is evident that while cartographic representations can serve as an invaluable tool for communicating with a broader audience, the information they convey is not always readily accessible [81]. A rethinking of the design process, with a focus on the user’s needs, can result in more effective communication. In one of the studies analysed, civil engineers and educators were involved in the development of thematic geomorphological hazard maps (GHTMs) for non-expert users. The preferences that emerged from this process resulted in a design that balances geomorphological detail and interpretive simplicity, improving understanding of natural hazards and hazard management through key references such as road networks and essential infrastructure [94].
The other two papers were grouped into the object supporting administration in the risk management, aimed at developing tools that decision-makers and policymakers could use [78,79]. The study, conducted by Carabella et al. (2021) [78], demonstrates the implementation of a warning system comprising sensors and an application for the real-time communication of information with citizens, thereby facilitating the management of extreme events by civil protection agencies. The calibration of these warning systems is precisely aligned with the geomorphological characteristics of the territory in which they are embedded.
The last article, Mǎrgǎrint et al. (2010) [90], in the dataset did not receive third-order coding due to the unavailability of the full text, which prevented the assessment of the use of geomorphological maps in the articles. Consequently, it was put into a named unclassifiable object. The results of the complete analysis are collected in Repository III.
A subsequent analysis was carried out according to the following methods outlined by Ahi and Searcy (2013) [44] and by Hamidova et al. (2024) [45]. However, of the articles included in the third dataset, those whose full text was not available were excluded from this final stage of analysis. Hence, the sample analysed in this final phase, therefore, consists of 10 articles. This approach provided a deeper understanding of the tools used to achieve the objectives defined through HCF. The articles were analysed individually. Table 3 presents a summary of the tool comparison results.
The results of this analysis showed no significant differences in the tools used. However, the author’s ability to use the tools innovatively made a difference. One such example is the introduction of social surveys in the field of earth sciences [78,94]. Indeed, social surveys represent a widely utilised instrument within the domain of social scientific research. The deployment of social surveys as a research tool has been documented for over a century [95]. However, it is not a common occurrence to observe their application beyond the confines of this field of study. In essence, social surveys are typically employed to monitor opinions and attitudes, collect demographic and socio-economic data, study social behaviour, evaluate public policies, support planning and decision-making processes, or investigate social changes over time [96].
The incorporation of social surveys into the field of earth sciences, and more specifically into the domain of geomorphological mapping studies, has the potential to confer a multitude of benefits. Shen et al. (2023) [94] employed social surveys to reimagine the configurations of geomorphological mapping products, thereby enhancing the user experience of a subset of potential end-users. Furthermore, the use of social survey methodology in geoscience can facilitate the dissemination of information within communities regarding the potential risks they may encounter [91,92].

4. Discussion

4.1. Implications of Geomorphological Maps on Social Context

As part of this research, a qualitative study was conducted to identify the purposes for which scientific literature on geomorphological mapping is produced, with special attention to the interdisciplinarity with the social sciences. It was found that, even today, much of the scientific literature on geomorphological maps concerns the description of geomorphological forms and processes. The analyses conducted show that geomorphological map products are almost always produced to be read by other geoscientists or specialists with good geomorphological skills.
The qualitative analysis of the bibliography showed that, despite the importance of the topic and its potential, geomorphology is rarely part of multidisciplinary projects with social sciences. Applied studies are less represented, especially those directly involving communities. The reflection stimulated by the results of this research is that an increase in the dissemination of geomorphological maps could be achieved by increasing their applicability and, at the same time, making them more accessible to an increasing number of users.
This research confirms that more than a century after their introduction, geomorphological maps remain an indispensable tool for understanding the territory [22]. However, the comparative analysis of the 10 articles reviewed shows that the integration of social science tools and methodologies with geomorphological maps has yielded results that are increasingly appreciated by end-users, including students and policymakers [94]. This combination has also proven crucial in promoting the culture of prevention and protection among the general public.
Based on this evidence, we emphasise that making geomorphological maps more accessible could promote their wider dissemination, with significant benefits for the community. Increased risk awareness among users could help improve risk management strategies at the community level and stimulate the development of more effective management plans by policymakers.
The literature review highlights the importance of collaboration between geomorphological and social sciences, demonstrating the high degree of applicability offered by this integration. For example, geomorphological maps that summarise geomorphological data using indices or enrich them with information more accessible to the general public, such as the concept of risk, are often more appreciated and, therefore, easier to use [78,81,94].

4.2. Future Perspectives

As a result of the findings of this study, the authors of this paper propose to consider the idea that new map products for social purposes could be inspired by the principles of large-scale customisation, which aims to provide affordable solutions with a balance between variety and customisation to effectively meet the specific needs of each user [97]. Approaches such as modularity and deferred differentiation not only help to contain costs but also promote greater user satisfaction through direct user involvement [98].
In this direction, it would be advantageous for geomorphological maps designed for social purposes to be made available in formats compatible with software already used by users. The recent spread of digital mapping tools and the introduction of new formats for information management offer unprecedented opportunities. For example, the integration of geomorphological maps in platforms such as Google Earth could facilitate the dissemination of geomorphological knowledge, making it accessible to a broader public and, at the same time, facilitating the understanding of territorial risks.
Indeed, geomorphological maps have enormous potential in the social sphere: not only can they support policymakers’ decision-making processes, but they can also raise the general public’s awareness of fundamental issues such as natural hazard prevention, sustainable planning, and land management. This ability to combine technical information and comprehensibility for users represents an extraordinary added value for promoting a more effective dialogue between science and society. Recent studies have increasingly emphasised the value of geomorphological mapping not only as a scientific tool but also as a means for engaging non-specialist audiences and enhancing public participation in land management. Although geomorphological maps are still rarely employed in social contexts, their potential is increasingly acknowledged. When simplified or adapted, these tools can help communities better grasp local hazards—such as landslides or erosion—thereby fostering informed decision-making and raising public awareness. In today’s more participatory planning environments, such maps could also support dialogue among scientists, planners, and citizens, especially in areas vulnerable to climate change. Despite being underexploited, these applications suggest a broader role for geomorphological mapping in governance, resilience-building, and inclusive territorial planning.

5. Conclusions

This study shows that geomorphological maps are currently produced for a wide range of purposes, including traditional ones, such as the analysis of geomorphological processes and spatial management and planning, as well as innovative ones that are becoming increasingly relevant, especially in interdisciplinary areas. Although the use of geomorphology for societal purposes, such as raising public awareness of hazards and supporting sustainable planning, is growing, there is still considerable scope for increasing its impact in this area.
To date, geomorphological–social maps have aimed to combine physical and social data to promote risk awareness, support policy decisions, and involve local communities. However, the integration of scientific and social perspectives is a key aspect of a comprehensive understanding and education on natural hazards. Geomorphological maps and their associated geodatabases, which enable continuous updating of the mapped information over time, documenting active processes, landforms, and other physical characteristics of a given area [99], are an essential tool for identifying areas at risk from natural hazards. To be truly effective, however, they must be complemented by social sciences, which provide tools for understanding how communities perceive and respond to such hazards. In fact, social sciences help to develop educational strategies adapted to different social and cultural realities, promoting greater awareness and resilience. An interdisciplinary approach thus improves not only the accuracy of natural hazard prevention but also the effectiveness of communication and education on safety behaviour and mitigation measures.
The production of geomorphological maps that are more accessible to the general public could facilitate their dissemination in the future. In addition, future multidisciplinary research could include surveys of stakeholder needs to ensure that geomorphological maps effectively display the information required by users. In this case, it is important to consider the needs of the decision-makers themselves. Furthermore, future research could involve the development of innovative tools based on geomorphological mapping that provide a tangible response to stakeholder needs.

Author Contributions

L.F.: Writing—review and editing, Writing—original draft, Formal analysis, Conceptualisation. A.B.: Writing—review and editing, Formal analysis, Conceptualisation. M.L.L.: Writing—review and editing, Conceptualisation. M.D.A.: Writing—review and editing, Conceptualisation, Funding acquisition. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by PNRR “GeoSciences IR” M4—C 2—L.I. 3.1. Finanziato dall’Unione europea NextGenerationEU (CUP: I53C22000800006).

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors would sincerely like to thank the four anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions that improved the quality of the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
HCFHierarchical Coding Frame

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Figure 1. Summary of the research phases and their sub-steps.
Figure 1. Summary of the research phases and their sub-steps.
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Figure 2. Scheme of the literature search carried out using the keyword “geomorphological map*”.
Figure 2. Scheme of the literature search carried out using the keyword “geomorphological map*”.
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Figure 3. Scheme of the literature search carried out using the keywords “geomorphological map*” and “social” studies.
Figure 3. Scheme of the literature search carried out using the keywords “geomorphological map*” and “social” studies.
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Figure 4. Construction scheme of the compositum dataset.
Figure 4. Construction scheme of the compositum dataset.
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Figure 5. Summary of the developed order of coding in the validation phase.
Figure 5. Summary of the developed order of coding in the validation phase.
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Figure 6. Annual production of “geomorphological map*” is shown with a solid line, while a dashed line indicates the overall trend in publication output.
Figure 6. Annual production of “geomorphological map*” is shown with a solid line, while a dashed line indicates the overall trend in publication output.
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Figure 7. Chart of categories (first-order coding) developed using HCF on Dataset I.
Figure 7. Chart of categories (first-order coding) developed using HCF on Dataset I.
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Figure 8. Chart of themes (second-order coding) developed using HCF on Dataset I.
Figure 8. Chart of themes (second-order coding) developed using HCF on Dataset I.
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Figure 9. Chart of themes (second-order coding) developed using HCF on Dataset II.
Figure 9. Chart of themes (second-order coding) developed using HCF on Dataset II.
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Figure 10. Chart of objects (third-order coding) developed using HCF on Dataset II.
Figure 10. Chart of objects (third-order coding) developed using HCF on Dataset II.
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Table 1. Comparison between two methodological frameworks. Column (a) presents the structure of thematic analysis as outlined by Nowell et al. (2017) [43]; column (b) illustrates the hierarchical coding frame (HCF), proposed here as an adaptation of thematic analysis.
Table 1. Comparison between two methodological frameworks. Column (a) presents the structure of thematic analysis as outlined by Nowell et al. (2017) [43]; column (b) illustrates the hierarchical coding frame (HCF), proposed here as an adaptation of thematic analysis.
a. Thematic Analysis by Nowell et al. (2017) [43]b. Hierarchical Coding Frame
Stage NameDescriptionStage NameDescription
Familiarising yourself with your dataProlong engagement with dataCreation of datasetsSelect the appropriate literature sample
Preliminary examination of dataProlong engagement with data
Generation of initial codesDevelopment of a coding frameworkDevelopment of
categories		Identify general purposes by transforming complex data into categories
Searching for themesDevelopment of a theme frameworkSearching and
developing themes		Identify specific purposes for linking similar categories
Reviewing themesDiagramming to make sense of theme connections
Defining and
naming themes		Peer debriefing and
team consensus on themes
Development of
objects		Identify material objectives to link similar practices
Producing the reportReport on reasons for theoretical,
methodological and analytical choices
throughout the entire study		Deducing a
conceptual model		Create an outline to represent the content
Table 2. Table modified from Krejcie and Morgan (1970) [48] in which N is the population size and S is the sample size.
Table 2. Table modified from Krejcie and Morgan (1970) [48] in which N is the population size and S is the sample size.
NSNSNS
1008011002852000322
30016913002972600335
50021715003063000341
70024817003133500346
90029619003204000351
source: by Krejcie and Morgan (1970) [48].
Table 3. Comparison of the used instruments.
Table 3. Comparison of the used instruments.
Cartographic and Topographical DataElevation Data and Digital Terrain ModelsAerial and Satellite ImagingClimate and Environmental DataMapping
and
Field Survey Instruments		Social DataOther Support Data
Bollati et al. (2017) [76]X X X X
Booth and Brayson, (2011) [77]XX XX
Carabella et al. (2021) [78]XXXXX X
de Andrade and Szlafsztein, (2015) [91]XXX XX
Díaz Balocchi et al. (2020) [79]XXX
Eshita et al. (2023) [92]X XX X
Frodella et al. (2020) [80]X X X
Griffiths and Abraham, (2008) [81]X X X
Kilburn and Pasuto, (2003) [93]X XXX
Shen et al. (2023) [94]XXX X
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Franceschi, L.; Bosino, A.; La Licata, M.; De Amicis, M. Geomorphological Mapping and Social Sciences: A Qualitative Review. Geosciences 2025, 15, 271. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15070271

AMA Style

Franceschi L, Bosino A, La Licata M, De Amicis M. Geomorphological Mapping and Social Sciences: A Qualitative Review. Geosciences. 2025; 15(7):271. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15070271

Chicago/Turabian Style

Franceschi, Laura, Alberto Bosino, Manuel La Licata, and Mattia De Amicis. 2025. "Geomorphological Mapping and Social Sciences: A Qualitative Review" Geosciences 15, no. 7: 271. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15070271

APA Style

Franceschi, L., Bosino, A., La Licata, M., & De Amicis, M. (2025). Geomorphological Mapping and Social Sciences: A Qualitative Review. Geosciences, 15(7), 271. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15070271

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