The Didactic Potential of Paleontological Immovable Heritage for Secondary Education (Middle School and High School) Students in Spain: Assessment from Learning and Research Approaches

Abstract

This study explores the didactic potential of paleontological immovable heritage in Secondary Education in Spain, focusing on how paleontological sites can enrich the educational curriculum. It is based on a survey of experts to identify key aspects to consider when developing educational activities at paleontological sites, aligning learning based on the official educational curriculum with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The goal is, on the one hand, to improve awareness of natural heritage conservation and foster meaningful and interdisciplinary learning and, on the other hand, to optimize the use of paleontological sites as valuable and accessible educational resources. The research highlights the importance of direct contact of students with the natural environment, proposing activities before and after the visits that seek greater involvement of students with the territory in which they live, and that serve to consolidate and strengthen their knowledge. In this context, the key competences of the educational curriculum are also analyzed, based on the official competences proposed by the European Union, which can be reinforced in paleontological contexts, considering both the benefits and the difficulties of integrating these sites into formal education.

1. Introduction

The International Declaration on the Rights of the Earth’s Memory [1] affirms that humankind and the Earth form a common heritage. Governments, scientific communities, and society should be the custodians of this shared heritage, with the right and duty to protect it and promote its conservation, making appropriate use of it. This implies that society can benefit from all the knowledge it offers about the history of the Earth and of life.

The main focus of this article is on the use of paleontological heritage from an educational perspective, based on the opinions of various teaching and research experts. Different types of heritage can be distinguished (Figure 1) according to the nature of the element (tangible, intangible, movable, immovable, individual or collective), its origin (cultural, natural, or landscape), or its duration (permanent, ephemeral, renewable, or non-renewable).

Within natural heritage, geological heritage values real or potential elements with a scientific, educational or cultural character [2,3]. In this context, the concept of paleontological heritage, an inherent part of geological heritage, has gained greater relevance in the international scientific community in recent years [4].

Part of the paleontological heritage is represented by all the sites known and studied by the paleontological community (immovable heritage) [5] and constitutes a fundamental source of knowledge about the history of the Earth and life. Therefore, it is essential to optimize their management to develop activities related to their inventory and study (scientific research, conservation, outreach, education, tourism, etc.).

Figure 1. List of basic concepts on the nature of paleontological heritage. Figure modified from [6,7,8]. * World heritage and Common heritage of mankind are considered joint estates/assets because of their exceptional value in combining elements of natural and cultural heritage.

Figure 1. List of basic concepts on the nature of paleontological heritage. Figure modified from [6,7,8]. * World heritage and Common heritage of mankind are considered joint estates/assets because of their exceptional value in combining elements of natural and cultural heritage.

When considering geoconservation actions, a series of steps must be followed in relation to the nature of the paleontological heritage (Figure 2).

2. Objectives

The objective of this study is to synthesize all the concepts and ideas about geology, paleontology, and evolution that can be addressed at a paleontological site, based on the provisions of Spanish secondary education curricula and the opinions of Spanish experts. To this end, the results of an expert survey were considered, summarizing all the important aspects for implementing activities, projects, and learning situations with high school students at paleontological sites.

This approach will lead to a series of consensus-based recommendations essential for implementing new projects based on (1) current curriculum content related to geology, paleontology, and evolution, and (2) the analysis of the experiences gathered through the expert feedback.

3. Contextualization of Immovable Paleontological Heritage in Field Educational Activities

Several studies show that most of the Spanish population finishes their secondary studies without basic notions about Earth Sciences [9] or Paleontology [4,10]. Some authors [11] also emphasize a general lack of sensitivity towards the Earth Sciences in Italian schools extended to the social and cultural background and leading to a lack of attention to the territory, which requires to be protected and “geo-preserved”.

Thus, promoting and reintroducing Geological items using a new approach by means of field activities in geosites, geoparks, and geological parks [12] is an interesting aspect when educational issues are considered. Children who attended summer courses at the Geological Park of Aliaga (Teruel, Spain) had a higher level of knowledge than adults, not only about the environment, but also about the implications of human activities in the territory [12]. This study compares the geological, environmental, and ethical knowledge acquired by community children attending summer courses on Geology and nature regarding other children and adults. In Earth S cience, the hands-on approach [11] is naturally part of the teaching of petrography and paleontology, where the learning object can be manipulated, observed, studied, analyzed and compared. In this approach, the aim is to promote sensitivity towards geoscience, passing through geosites, whether they are isolated sites or inserted in geoparks, to acquire the concepts and principles of geo-heritage and geo-conservation. In this sense “Geoheritage sites” is a term applied to all geological sites, including unique fossils or paleontological evidence [13].

Although studies on natural (geology) heritage in Spain are relatively recent, they are becoming increasingly multidisciplinary, integrating aspects such as legislation, protected areas, tourism and economics [14]. Key research, such as [3,6,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22], has provided the essential methodological basis for the study of geological heritage. On the other hand, numerous studies have addressed issues such as the management, protection, and conservation of this natural heritage [23] and its relationship with paleontological heritage [24], valuating its interest or potential benefit in scientific, didactic or cultural areas [2,3]. Furthermore, the growing recognition of paleontological heritage within the scientific community and in national laws has given rise to work and programs within the field of social paleontology [25,26]. The design and development of innovative projects in this field take advantage of current resources to adapt to a wide variety of circumstances and individual characteristics of the target audience, such as different abilities, prior knowledge, learning preferences, interests, motivations, cultural differences, language, socio-economic and family contexts [27].

4. Paleontology and Environmental Education: Paleontological Heritage as an Educational Resource in the Framework of the 2030 Agenda

Recent studies highlight the importance of paleontological sites for secondary school education, emphasizing their role in understanding Earth’s history and life [28]. While paleontology’s presence in Spanish curricula is limited [4,8], it offers valuable opportunities for active and collaborative learning through both abstract concepts and tangible fossils [29,30,31]. This approach also promotes teamwork, interdisciplinary vision, and sustainability education [31,32,33].

Within secondary education in Spain, ESO (Compulsory Secondary Education) corresponds to the last years of Middle School and the first years of High School, while Bachillerato (not compulsory) corresponds to the last years of High School. Secondary education is crucial for integrating paleontology, covering topics like Earth’s dynamics and geological history [34]. Research demonstrates the benefits of incorporating paleontology to develop key student competences, addressing misconceptions [35], utilizing history of science [36], film [37], gamification [38], and exploring paleontological heritage [39], geological time [40], and multidisciplinary workshops [41]. It is also important to raise awareness about site protection [42] and the educational value of site visits [43].

Paleontology offers diverse didactic alternatives, fostering student engagement, detailed planning, values education, and attention to diverse learning styles. Understanding paleontological heritage raises awareness about natural environment valuation and conservation [44,45]. Active, interdisciplinary learning, incorporating Earth and environmental sciences, is essential for introducing concepts like sustainable development [32].

In this context, it is relevant to introduce ideas related to the goals of the 2030 Agenda [46] into the dissemination techniques. Among the goals set, much attention is paid to the preservation of the natural environment and the development of positive feelings towards the environment to obtain greater scientific, educational and economic benefits from the conservation of the natural environment. It is essential to develop activities and experiences that favor the knowledge and direct contact of pupils with the natural environment [4,8], thus leading to an increase in their level of involvement in the search for solutions to real problems related to the territory in which they live (laboratory activities, visits to museums or interpretation centers, urban geological routes or trips to paleontological sites and natural environments near the educational center). All this considers aspects related to inclusive, equitable and quality Global Education (SDG4) for all people.

5. Paleontological Sites and Curricular Contents

The exit profile for students at the end of basic education in Spain [47,48] identifies and defines a series of key competences that students are expected to have developed on completing this phase of their educational pathway: (a) c ommunication in the mother tongue competence (CMTC); (b) c ommunication in foreign languages competence (CFLC); (c) Science, Engineering, Technology, and Mathematics (STEM), (d) d igital competence (DC); (e) l earning to learn competence (LTLC); (f) s ocial and civic competences (SCC); (g) s ense of initiative and entrepreneurship competence (SIEC); and (h) c ultural awareness and expression competence (CAEC).

For each subject included in the curriculum, a series of subject-specific competences are defined which aim to achieve those key competences for the whole of basic education. Thus, through the analysis of the current educational curriculum in Spain (see

Table A1. Knowledge and aspects related to Geology and Paleontology that are included in Biology and Geology in 4ºESO (students between 15 and 16 years old) [47] and could be worked on in situ at a paleontological site.

Biology and Geology-4ºESO (Students Between 15 and 16 Years Old)
Specific competence	Evaluation criteria
1. Interpret and transmit scientific information and data, arguing about them and using different formats, to analyze concepts and processes of biological and geological sciences.	1.1. Analyze biological and geological concepts and processes interpreting information in different formats (models, graphs, tables, diagrams, formulas, diagrams, symbols, web pages, etc.), maintaining a critical attitude, obtaining conclusions and forming informed opinions. [...] 1.4. Elaborate hypotheses in a scientific way and be able to contrast them through experimentation, observation or argumentation.
2. Identify, locate and select information, contrasting its veracity, organizing and critically evaluating it, to solve questions related to biological and geological sciences.	2.1. Solve questions and delve into biological and geological aspects by locating, selecting, organizing and critically analyzing information from different sources and citing them with respect for intellectual property. 2.2. Contrast the veracity of information on biological and geological topics or scientific works, using reliable sources and adopting a critical and skeptical attitude towards information without a scientific basis such as pseudoscience, conspiracy theories, unfounded beliefs, hoaxes, etc. 2.3. Value the contribution of science to society and the work of the people dedicated to it, understanding research as a collective and interdisciplinary work in constant evolution.
3. Plan and develop research projects, following the steps of scientific methodologies and cooperating, when necessary, to investigate aspects related to geological and biological sciences.	3.1. Pose questions and hypotheses that can be answered or contrasted using scientific methods, in the explanation of biological and geological phenomena and the realization of predictions about them. 3.2. Design the experimentation, data collection and analysis of biological and geological phenomena in a way that allows answering specific questions and contrasting a hypothesis raised avoiding biases. 3.3. Perform experiments and take quantitative or qualitative data on biological and geological phenomena using the appropriate instruments, tools or techniques with correctness and precision. [...] 3.5. Cooperate and collaborate in the different phases of a scientific project to work more efficiently, valuing the importance of cooperation in research.
4. Use computational reasoning and thinking, critically analyzing answers and solutions and reformulating the procedure, if necessary, to solve problems or give explanation to everyday life processes related to biology and geology.	4.1. Solve problems or explain biological or geological processes using knowledge, data and information provided by the teacher, logical reasoning, computational thinking or digital resources. 4.2. Critically analyze the solution to a problem about biological and geological phenomena, changing the procedures used or the conclusions if the solution is not feasible or in the face of new data provided later.
5. Analyze the effects of certain actions on the environment and health, based on the fundamentals of biological and earth sciences, to promote and adopt habits that avoid or minimize negative environmental impacts, are compatible with sustainable development and allow maintaining and improving health.	5.1. Identify the possible natural hazards that are enhanced by certain human actions in a geographic area, considering its lithological characteristics, relief, vegetation and socioeconomic factors.
6. Analyze the elements of a specific landscape valuing it as natural heritage and using knowledge of geology and earth sciences to explain its geological history, propose actions aimed at its protection and identify possible natural risks.	6.1. Deduce and explain the geological history of a relief identifying its most relevant elements from cuts, maps or other geological information systems and using reasoning, basic geological principles (horizontality, superposition, actualism, etc.) and the most relevant geological theories.

,

Table A2. Knowledge and aspects related to Geology and Paleontology that are included in Biology and Geology in 4ºESO (students between 15 and 16 years old) [47] and could be worked on in situ at a paleontological site.

Biology and Geology-4ºESO (Students Between 15 and 16 Years Old)
Basic knowledge (contents)
A. Scientific project.
- Formulation of questions, hypotheses and conjectures: approach with scientific perspective.
[...]
- Reliable sources of scientific information: recognition and use.
- Experimental controls (positive and negative): design and argumentation about their importance for obtaining objective and reliable scientific results.
- Answering scientific questions through experimentation and field work: use of the necessary instruments and spaces (laboratory, classrooms, environment, etc.) appropriately and accurately.
- Methods of observation and data collection of natural phenomena.
- Methods of analysis of results and differentiation between correlation and causation.
- Scientific work and people dedicated to science: contribution to biological and geological sciences and social importance.
- The historical evolution of scientific knowledge: science as a collective, interdisciplinary work in continuous construction.
B. Genetics and evolution.
- Understanding of evolutionary facts, study and evaluation of the mechanisms of evolution.
C. Geology.
- Relief and landscape: differences, their importance as resources and factors involved in their formation and modeling.
[…]
- Study of the global effects of the dynamics of the geosphere from the perspective of plate tectonics.
- External and internal geological processes: differences and relationship with natural hazards.
- Prevention measures and risk maps.
- Geological slices: interpretation and tracing of the geological history reflect by applying the principles of the study of the Earth’s history (horizontality, superposition, intersection, faunal succession, etc.).
- Geological time, location of important geological and biological events. Guiding fossils.
D. The Earth in the universe.
- Appreciation of the habitability of the Earth and its fragility and the importance of caring for the environment.

,

Table A3. Knowledge and aspects related to Geology and Paleontology that are included in Biology and Geology in 1ºBachillerato (students between 16 and 17 years old) [47] and could be worked on in situ at a paleontological site.

Biology, Geology and Environmental Sciences–1ºBachillerato (Students Between 16 and 17 Years Old)
Specific competence	Evaluation criteria
1. Interpret and transmit scientific information and data, arguing about them with precision and using different formats to analyze processes, methods, experiments or results of biological, geological and environmental sciences.	1.1. Critically analyze concepts and processes related to the knowledge of the subject, interpreting information in different formats (models, graphs, tables, diagrams, formulas, diagrams). [...]
2. Locate and use reliable sources, identifying, selecting and organizing information, critically evaluating it and contrasting its veracity, to solve questions posed related to biological, geological and environmental sciences in an autonomous way.	2.1. Raise and solve questions related to the knowledge of the subject, locating and citing appropriate sources and selecting, organizing and critically analyzing the information. 2.2. Contrast and justify the veracity of information related to the knowledge of the subject, using reliable sources and adopting a critical and skeptical attitude towards information without a scientific basis such as pseudo sciences, conspiracy theories, unfounded beliefs, hoaxes, etc. 2.3. Argue about the contribution of science to society and the work of people dedicated to it, highlighting the role of women and understanding research as a collective and interdisciplinary work in constant evolution and influenced by the political context and economic resources.
3. Design, plan and develop research projects following the steps of scientific methodologies, considering the available resources in a realistic way and looking for ways of collaboration, to investigate aspects related to biological, geological and environmental sciences.	3.1. To pose questions, make predictions and formulate hypotheses that can be answered or contrasted, using scientific methods and that try to explain biological, geological or environmental phenomena. 3.2. Design the experimentation, data collection and analysis of biological, geological and environmental phenomena and select the necessary instruments to answer specific questions and test a hypothesis, minimizing biases as much as possible. 3.3. Perform experiments and take quantitative and qualitative data on biological, geological and environmental phenomena, selecting and using the appropriate instruments, tools or techniques with correctness and accuracy. 3.4. Interpret and analyze results obtained in a research project using, when necessary, mathematical and technological tools, recognizing their scope and limitations and obtaining reasoned and substantiated conclusions or assessing the impossibility of doing so. 3.5. Establish collaborations inside and outside the educational center in the different phases of the scientific project to work more efficiently, using the appropriate technological tools, valuing the importance of cooperation in research, respecting diversity and favoring inclusion.
4. Seek and use strategies in problem solving, critically analyzing the solutions and answers found and reformulating the procedure, if necessary, to explain phenomena related to biological, geological and environmental sciences.	4.1. Solve problems or explain biological, geological or environmental processes, using various resources such as own knowledge, collected data and information, logical reasoning, computational thinking or digital tools. 4.2. Critically analyze the solution to a problem on biological, geological or environmental phenomena and modify the procedures used or the conclusions obtained if such solution is not feasible or in the face of new data provided or collected subsequently.
5. Design, promote and implement initiatives related to environmental conservation, sustainability and health, based on the fundamentals of biological, geological and environmental sciences, to promote sustainable and healthy lifestyles.	5.1. Analyze the causes and ecological, social and economic consequences of the main environmental problems from an individual, local and global perspective, conceiving them as major challenges of humanity and based on scientific data and knowledge of the subject. 5.2. Propose and implement sustainable and healthy habits and initiatives at the local level and argue about their positive effects and the urgency of adopting them based on the knowledge of the subject.
6. Analyze the elements of the geologic record using scientific fundamentals, to relate them to the major events that have occurred throughout the Earth’s history and to the temporal magnitude in which they occurred.	6.1. Relate major events in Earth’s history to selected elements of the geologic record and to events occurring today, using basic geologic principles and logical reasoning. 6.2. Solve dating problems by analyzing elements of the geologic and fossil record and applying dating methods.

,

Table A4. Knowledge and aspects related to Geology and Paleontology that are included in Biology and Geology in 1ºBachillerato (students between 16 and 17 years old) [47] and could be worked on in situ at a paleontological site.

Biology, Geology and Environmental Sciences–1ºBachillerato (Students Between 16 and 17 Years Old)
Basic knowledge (contents)
A. Scientific project.
- Hypotheses, questions, problems and conjectures: approach with a scientific perspective.
- Strategies for information search, collaboration, communication and interaction with scientific institutions: digital tools, presentation formats of processes, results and ideas (slides, graphs, videos, posters, reports and others).
- Reliable sources of information: search, recognition and use.
- Laboratory or field scientific experiments: design, planning and realization. Hypothesis testing. Experimental controls.
- Methods of analysis of scientific results: organization, representation and statistical tools.
- Scientific communication strategies: scientific vocabulary, formats (reports, videos, models, graphs and others) and digital tools.
- Scientific work and people dedicated to science: contribution to biological, geological and environmental sciences and social importance. The role of women in science.
- The historical evolution of scientific knowledge: science as a collective, interdisciplinary work in continuous construction.
B. Ecology and sustainability.
- The environment as an economic and social driver: importance of environmental impact assessment and sustainable resources and waste management. The relationship between environmental, human and other living beings’ health: one health.
- Sustainability of daily activities: use of sustainability indicators, lifestyles compatible and consistent with a sustainable development model. Concept of ecological footprint.
- Local and global initiatives to promote a sustainable development model.
C. History of the Earth and life.
- Geologic time: magnitude, scale and dating methods. Problems of absolute and relative dating.
- The history of the Earth: major geological events.
- Methods and principles for the study of the geologic record: reconstruction of the geologic history of an area. Geological principles.
- The history of life on Earth: major changes in the major groups of living things and justification from the evolutionary perspective.
- The main taxonomic groups: fundamental characteristics. Importance of biodiversity conservation.
D. Terrestrial dynamics and composition.
- Structure, composition and dynamics of the geosphere. Direct and indirect methods of study.
- Internal geological processes, relief and their relation to plate tectonics. Types of edges, reliefs, seismic and volcanic activity and resulting rocks in each of them.
- External geological processes: causal agents and consequences on relief. Main forms of relief modeling and geomorphology.
- Edaphogenesis: soil forming factors and processes. Edaphodiversity and the importance of its conservation.
- Natural hazards: relationship with geological processes and human activities. Prediction, prevention and correction strategies.
- Classification and identification of rocks: according to their origin and composition. The lithological cycle.
- Chemical-structural classification and identification of minerals and rocks.
- The importance of minerals and rocks: daily uses. Their exploitation and responsible use.
- The importance of conservation of the geological heritage.

,

Table A5. Knowledge and aspects related to Geology and Paleontology that are included in Geology and Environmental in 2ºBachillerato (students between 17 and 18 years old) [47] and could be worked on in situ at a paleontological site.

Geology and Environmental Sciences–2ºBachillerato (Students Between 17 and 18 Years Old)
Specific competence	Evaluation criteria
1. Interpret and accurately transmit information and data extracted from scientific works to analyze concepts, processes, methods, experiments or results related to geological and environmental sciences.	1.1. Critically analyze concepts and processes, related to the knowledge of the subject, selecting and interpreting information in various formats such as maps (topographic, hydrographic, geological, vegetation, etc.), slices, models, flow charts or others. 1.2. Communicate information or reasoned opinions related to the knowledge of the subject, transmitting them in a clear and rigorous manner and using the appropriate vocabulary and formats such as maps (topographic, hydrographic, geological, vegetation, etc.), cuts, models, flow charts, or others and responding accurately to questions that may arise during the presentation. 1.3. Conduct scientific discussions on aspects related to the knowledge of the subject considering the strengths and weaknesses of different positions in a reasoned manner and with a receptive and respectful attitude towards the opinion of others.
2. Locate and use reliable sources, identifying, selecting and organizing information, critically evaluating it and contrasting its veracity, to solve questions posed autonomously and create content related to geological and environmental sciences.	2.1. Raise and solve questions and create content related to the knowledge of the subject, locating and citing sources appropriately, selecting, organizing and critically analyzing the information. 2.2. Contrast and justify the veracity of information related to the knowledge of the subject, using reliable sources, providing data and adopting a critical and skeptical attitude towards information without a scientific basis such as pseudo sciences, conspiracy theories, unfounded beliefs, hoaxes, etc.
3. Critically analyze results of research or divulgation works related to geological and environmental sciences checking if they correctly follow the steps of scientific methods to evaluate the reliability of their conclusions.	3.1. To evaluate the reliability of the conclusions of research or scientific dissemination work related to the knowledge of the subject of Geology and Environmental Sciences according to the interpretation of the results obtained. 3.2. Argue, using specific examples, about the contribution of science to society and the work of the people dedicated to it, highlighting the role of women and understanding research as a collective and interdisciplinary work in constant evolution influenced by the political and social context and economic resources.
4. To pose and solve problems, seeking and using appropriate strategies, critically analyzing the solutions and reformulating the procedure, if necessary, to explain phenomena related to geological and environmental sciences.	4.1. Explain phenomena related to the knowledge of the subject of Geology and Environmental Sciences through the approach and resolution of problems, seeking and using appropriate strategies and resources. 4.2. Critically analyze the solution to a problem related to the knowledge of the subject of Geology and Environmental Sciences and reformulate the procedures used or conclusions if such solution is not feasible or in the face of new data provided or found later.
5. Analyze the impacts of certain actions on the environment or the availability of resources through field observations and information in different formats and based on scientific foundations to promote and adopt lifestyles compatible with sustainable development.	5.1. Promote and adopt sustainable habits based on the analysis of the different types of geological and biosphere resources and their possible uses. 5.2. To relate the impact of the exploitation of certain resources with the environmental deterioration, arguing about the importance of their responsible consumption and use.
6. Identify and analyze the geological elements of the relief from field observations or information in different formats to explain phenomena, reconstruct the geological history, make predictions and identify possible geological hazards of a given area.	6.1. Deduce and explain the geological history of a given area, identifying and analyzing its geological elements from information in different formats (photographs, cuts, geological maps, etc.). 6.2. Make predictions about geological phenomena and natural hazards in each area, analyzing the influence of different factors on them (human activities, climatology, relief, vegetation, location, internal geological processes, etc.) and propose actions to prevent or minimize their possible negative effects.

and

Table A6. Knowledge and aspects related to Geology and Paleontology that are included in Geology and Environmental in 2ºBachillerato (students between 17 and 18 years old) [47] and could be worked on in situ at a paleontological site.

Geology and Environmental Sciences–2ºBachillerato (Students Between 17 and 18 Years Old)
Basic knowledge (contents)
A. Experimentation in Geology and Environmental Sciences.
- Sources of geological and environmental information (maps, cuts, aerial photographs, texts, satellite positioning and images, flow diagrams, etc.): search, recognition, use and interpretation.
- Instruments for geological and environmental work: use in the field and laboratory. New technologies in geological and environmental research.
- Strategies for information search, collaboration, communication and interaction with scientific institutions: digital tools, presentation formats of processes, results and ideas (slides, graphs, videos, posters, reports and others).
- Tools for the representation of geological and environmental information: stratigraphic column, cut, map, flow diagram, etc.
- Geological and environmental heritage: appreciation of its importance and the conservation of geodiversity.
- Scientific work and people dedicated to science: contribution to the development of geology and environmental sciences and social importance. The role of women.
- The historical evolution of scientific knowledge: the progress of geology and environmental sciences as a collective, interdisciplinary work in continuous construction.
B. Plate tectonics and internal geodynamics.
- Internal geodynamics of the planet: influence on relief (volcanism, earthquakes, orogeny, continental movements, etc.). The theory of plate tectonics.
- The Wilson cycle: influence on the disposition of the continents and on the main orogenic episodes.
- Current manifestations of internal geodynamics.
- Rock deformations: elastic, plastic and brittle. Relationship with the forces acting on them and with other factors.
- Internal geological processes and associated natural hazards: relationship with human activities. Importance of land-use planning.
C. External geological processes.
- External geological processes (weathering, edaphogenesis, erosion, transport and sedimentation) and their effects on relief.
- The forms of relief modeling: relationship with geological agents, climate and the properties and relative disposition of the predominant rocks.
- External geological processes and associated natural hazards: relationship with human activities. Importance of land use planning.
D. Minerals, the constituents of rocks.
- Concept of mineral.
[…]
- Identification of minerals by their physical properties: identification tools (guides, keys, instruments, technological resources, etc.).
- Phase diagrams: conditions of formation and transformation of minerals.
E. Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
- Concept of rock.
- Classification of rocks according to their origin (igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic). Relation of their origin with their observable characteristics.
- Identification of rocks by their characteristics: identification tools (guides, keys, instruments, technological resources, etc.).
- Magmas: classification, composition, evolution, resulting rocks, types of associated volcanic eruptions and originated reliefs.
- Diagenesis: concept, types of resulting sedimentary rocks according to the source material and sedimentary environment.
- Metamorphic rocks: types, factors influencing their formation and the relationship between them.
- The lithological cycle: formation, destruction and transformation of different types of rocks, relationship with plate tectonics and external geological processes.
G. Resources and their sustainable management
- Geological and biosphere resources: applications in everyday life.
- Concept of resource, reservoir and reserve.
[...]
- Exploitation of rocks, minerals and energy resources of the geosphere: types and evaluation of their environmental impact.
- Environmental and social impacts of resource exploitation (water, landscape, mining, energy, soil, etc.): preventive, corrective and compensatory measures.

in Appendix A), many of these specific competences for various subjects related to Earth and life sciences could be developed through the development and implementation of in situ projects and activities at different paleontological sites. Such development of the specific competences would ultimately lead to the acquisition and development of the general key competences set out in the curriculum.

The contents, evaluation criteria and specific competences, are important when developing educational activities and projects in situ at paleontological sites are set out in the Appendix A (See Table A1, Table A2, Table A3, Table A4, Table A5 and Table A6).

Contents include the concepts and ideas related to the evolution of the Earth and life that must be covered throughout the academic year. Evaluation criteria are the standards used to evaluate student learning and constitute a tool that allows teachers to assess student progress and plan their teaching. Finally, specific competencies are the skills that students must develop to address activities and situations that require basic knowledge in each subject area.

The tables in the Appendix A refer to three subjects: Biology and Geology (four th year of ESO; students aged 15–16); Biology, Geology and Environmental Sciences (fir st year of Bachillerato; students aged 16–17); and Geology and Environmental Sciences (second year of Bachillerato; students aged 17–18). The information included in these tables has been extracted from current official Spanish educational legislation and has been modified as little as possible to avoid bias or misinterpretation. It refers to concepts and ideas that students can develop in activities and projects carried out at paleontological sites.

In addition to legislation, it is important to contextualize paleontological heritage in Spanish locations such as geoparks or paleontological sites.

Table 1. Spanish g eoparks and selected paleontological sites with paleontological heritage.

Name and location of the UNESCO Global Geoparks in Spain
Maestrazgo (Aragón)	Molina Alto-Tajo (Castilla-La Mancha)
Cabo de Gata-Níjar (Andalucía)	El Hierro (Islas Canarias)
Sobrarbe-Pirineos (Aragón)	Lanzarote y Archipiélago Chinijo (Islas Canarias)
Sierras Subbéticas (Andalucía)	Las Loras (Castilla y León)
Costa Vasca (País Vasco)	Origens (Cataluña)
Sierra Morena de Sevilla (Andalucía)	Montañas do Courel (Galicia)
Villuercas-Ibores-Jara (Extremadura)	Granada (Andalucía)
Cataluña Central (Cataluña)	Volcanes de Calatrava (Castilla-La Mancha)
Cabo Ortegal (Galicia)
Some paleontological sites of special interest in the Iberian Peninsula
Yacimientos paleontológicos del Cámbrico de Murero (Aragón). Visitable.	Yacimientos pseudodokárstico del Mioceno superior del Cerro de los Batallones (Madrid). Visitable.
Yacimiento de vertebrados del Cretácico inferior de Las Hoyas (Castilla La-Mancha). Visitable.	Cueva de El Sidrón (Asturias). Visitable.
Yacimiento paleontológico del Ordovícico en el túnel del Fabar (Ribadesella, Asturias)	Estratotipo del Vallesiense, Cuenca del Valles Penedés (Cataluña). Visitable.
Yacimiento de dinosaurios del Cretácico superior Lo Hueco (Castilla-La Mancha). Visitable.	Yacimiento paleontológico continental y mineralización de azufre del Mioceno en Libros (Teruel). Visitable.
Yacimientos paleontológicos del Mioceno de Somosaguas (Madrid). Visitable.	Yacimiento de homínidos del Cuaternario de la Sierra de Atapuerca (Castilla y León). Visitable.
Yacimiento paleontológico de Fonelas P-1 (Andalucía). Visitable.	Yacimiento paleontológico de Venta Micena (Andalucía)
Yacimiento paleontológico de Barranco León-5 (Andalucía)	Yacimiento paleontológico de Fuente Nueva-3 (Andalucía)
Yacimiento paleontológico ediacárico en el Arroyo de la Fuente (Extremadura)	Desfiladero del río Ruecas en el sinclinal de Santa Lucía (Extremadura)

below shows some important sites that can be the subject of school visits, as well as Spanish UNESCO geoparks.

6. Expert Form: Perception of the Didactic Advantages Offered by Paleontological Sites When Developing Educational Activities and Projects In Situ

• Methodology and evaluation instruments

The purpose of the survey was to find out the opinion of experts on the educational value of paleontological sites and how they can be used for different educational activities. The information provided is intended to serve as a basis for improving the planning of educational projects on these sites. Furthermore, these questions seek to link educational aspects with sustainability and conservation, in line with global objectives and heritage protection.

The form was designed to obtain sufficient information on the subject of study to conduct an objective, critical, and realistic analysis of the data. It consisted of 28 questions, with test, numerical grading, and short-answer options. It was sent to individuals familiar with the subject of this study, including high school teachers, university professors, geologists, researchers and specialists working on paleontological sites, as well as other experts in the field associated with educational or research institutions.

Regarding the selection criteria for submitting the form, the authors considered profiles that met a series of criteria, such as individuals who carried out their professional activity in Spain and were familiar with the educational potential of the territory’s immovable paleontological heritage. Therefore, the selected target audience was biology, geology, and environmental science teachers, or professionals associated with companies that carry out outreach activities related to the main topic of this study. Since the survey was sent to a relatively select number of people, the authors consider that the final sample of 26 participants is sufficiently representative to be a case study, since there are not many professionals who meet the criteria required to be surveyed.

• Analysis and discussion of responses

Most of the respondents were secondary school (26.9%) and university teachers (38.5%), followed by Earth S cience professionals (15.4%, see Figure 3). Considering that the aim is to analyze the suitability of the sites to carry out projects with students in the last stages of s econdary e ducation, prior to university entrance, it makes sense that most of the respondents have this profile.

All the respondents were over 25 years old, most of them being professionals between 25 and 45 years old (Figure 3). It is worth noting that about 70% had more than 5 years of experience in their profession, which may be a significant factor when answering the survey if we assume that they are people with a background that makes them able to answer most of the questions posed in a more objective way. The proportion of female respondents was slightly more than half of the sample (Figure 3).

The greatest educational benefit identified by the surveys (92.3%) was to help students develop a deeper understanding of the natural and social environment, using knowledge and methodologies, including observation and experimentation, to ask questions and draw conclusions based on evidence to help interpret and transform the natural world and social context (Figure 4). The improvement in the ability to express scientific ideas and concepts in an appropriate and coherent way (50%) and the exercise of responsible citizenship towards the natural environment and sustainability (46.2%) were also mentioned as outstanding aspects of learning at a paleontological site (Figure 4).

Figure 5 shows a list of different intrinsic aspects that a paleontological site must have to have the potential for adequate educational use. It is noteworthy that the dichotomy of answers among respondents is striking when it comes to emphasizing what each one believes to be the fundamental intrinsic aspects that a paleontological site must have in order to have adequate potential for educational use. On the one hand, aspects such as in situ fossil sampling (3.8%), self-explanatory signs (3.8%), guided tours or the fact that it is recognized as a paleontological locality of reference (19.2%) were scarcely considered. On the other hand, the existence of infrastructures that favor visits and facilitate mobility around the site has been considered as the first fundamental aspect to consider when developing activities and projects in situ (76.9%). This factor is related to the proximity of a site to an educational center when organizing activities, as considered by the experts surveyed in a later question.

Other aspects that were considered very important for educational use (Figure 5) are the degree of scientific knowledge of the site (57.7%), the abundance, diversity and quality of preservation of the fossil record (and of the site in general; 57.7%), previous didactic uses and exploitation (53.8%), or the fact that it can serve to illustrate the paleoenvironmental characteristics of the area (53.8%).

Respondents considered that the most effective actions at a paleontological site (Figure 6) are multisensory activities (92.3%), as well as visits guided by teachers (65.4%) and specialists in geology and paleontology (50%). This didactic-guided option is slightly preferred to visits in which only a professional in geology or paleontology is in charge of the visit, so that we can highlight the perception of the respondents of the importance of the figure of the teacher as a connoisseur of the didactic methodologies that allow an effective visit at the level of learning and not only as a motivating element (Figure 6).

The next question of the questionnaire invited participants to justify very briefly the answers provided in the previous question (effectiveness of educational activities). It should be noted that the vast majority of respondents stressed the importance of the participation of both a teacher and a specialist in the activities and projects at the sites, in order to complement the technical knowledge of a specialist with the knowledge of the group, the transmission and contextualization by the teacher of all the concepts and ideas that are presented, since they are the person who knows best how the students learn. It is emphasized that, in any case, the figure of an external expert is fundamental, either because of the degree of technical knowledge of the place or because he/she represents a novelty figure for the students, which can help them to become more involved in the activity by providing an attentional stimulus. Finally, it is also clear that activities that involve public interaction with the sites work better than guided tours in which the public is merely a recipient of knowledge.

The next point of the questionnaire invited professionals to describe the main limitations or difficulties they face when organizing educational activities at paleontological sites with students at different stages. Three aspects were recurrently mentioned here. The first of these had to do with the students’ prior knowledge, which is often not sufficient, and their interest in this type of activity, which is not usually very high due to the (sometimes scarce) presence of geology and paleontology in the curricula, as well as their treatment in the classroom by teachers. Ref. [4] already pointed out this scarce treatment of Paleontology in Spanish educational curricula.

The second aspect that stands out refers to the accessibility and level of protection of paleontological sites, since in many cases, the funding available to the research teams working on them is not sufficient to improve them for external visits.

Finally, it is important to know the dates of possible educational visits sufficiently in advance so that they can be included in the schools’ educational programs for the school year. This could be solved if the organizers of open days or school visits always kept the same dates for their annual or monthly activities. This involves organization, staffing and funding, which is a critical factor to consider, as these economic and personal resources are not always available.

Figure 7 illustrates the responses to the next question in the survey, which complements the two previous ones and focuses on the type of resources or support that are considered essential for the development of educational projects and activities at paleontological sites. Introductory activities in the classroom (76.9%), coordination between teachers and specialist personnel working at the sites (73.2%), synthesis and sharing activities after the field trip (69.2%), and site infrastructure are the factors that stand out the most. However, school equipment in accordance with the activity to be carried out is not a point they saw as problematic (7.7%).

The next intervention was an open question about whether they had participated in educational activities at paleontological sites considering relevant educational aspects and the answers focused on curricular nuances that could be further strengthened. It is worth highlighting mentions of the history of the Earth and of life, evolution, the perception of geological time, the process of fossilization, the actual location of authentic fossils, natural heritage and its conservation, or aspects of ecology (ecosystems, environmental changes, biotic and abiotic factors of these changes, etc.).

Despite all the curricular attributes that the different professionals surveyed consider that could be developed, refs [4,8] already pointed out that it is essential to expand the visibility, integration and treatment of paleontology and paleontological heritage in educational curricula, thus providing a more systemic and more applied vision to the contents, evaluation criteria and evaluable learning standards related to the origin and evolution of life.

Respondents were then asked to indicate how they believe educational activities at paleontological sites can contribute to raising students’ awareness of the protection and conservation of natural heritage.

Because of their interest, we include some of the responses that mark the main trends:

‘My experience tells me that the public who attend such activities feel that they have been made a part of their natural environment and as such are more willing to take care of it’.

‘On the visit itself, they are already setting foot on land that is generally protected. They can be made aware of this by briefly mentioning the protection figures and what they mean’.

‘These activities allow direct experiences that make tangible something that is not everyday for the public. They allow people to get involved and to directly see the state of this natural heritage. You don’t value or protect what you don’t know or understand’.

‘By learning about heritage, it generates a sense of responsibility and ownership that encourages greater protection and conservation on the part of the students’.

‘I support a social appropriation of heritage’.

‘The students learn to give value to this type of site in the same way as they give value to a church or a Roman city’.

In relation to the above responses, it can be inferred that most respondents believed that the experience of visiting a site and learning about its importance will help to raise awareness of its value and protection.

Afterwards, it was asked how respondents consider educational activities at paleontological sites can contribute to the achievement of the 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially in terms of quality education (SDG 4) and the protection of terrestrial ecosystems (SDG 15). Below are some of the responses that are most significant in the perception of most respondents:

‘It is the ideal opportunity to link the two SDGs and work on relative aspects that relate to them. Without geology there can be no quality education’.

‘The activities outside the classroom, practical, and in unique places increase interest and facilitate the assimilation of concepts, providing quality education and helping to create naturalist, scientific, or simply learning vocations’.

‘These activities improve quality education as they reinforce the content taught in the classroom and give students the opportunity to go out of school to experience first-hand how paleontologists work. This educational formula allows us to put young people at the center of experience and allows them to be an active part of their education’.

‘Paleontological sites offer a good reference for both objectives, helping to facilitate the application of innovative teaching methodologies and contributing to the knowledge of the Earth system over time, understanding how ecosystems function and how they change’.

‘Knowledge of paleontological heritage, geological time and past changes/alterations are essential to understand and act on current global change. It therefore also contributes directly to SDG 14 (protection of marine ecosystems/underwater life) and SDG 13 (climate action)’.

‘Quality education means going beyond theoretical knowledge and bringing students closer to the reality of what they learn in the classroom. This makes them more aware of the need to protect particularly vulnerable areas, such as paleontological sites, which helps to meet SDG15′.

Analyzing these responses, not only can knowledge of paleontological heritage contribute to SDGs 4 and 15, but there are others that are also important to take into account, such as SDGs 13 and 14.

The next question was to find out whether the respondents had been organizers of any educational activity associated with paleontological sites or other places of geological interest. It is noteworthy that 88% indicate that they have been organizers or have carried out some activity or project in situ at paleontological sites.

In relation to the previous question, and regardless of whether they had previously participated in activities linked to paleontological sites, respondents were asked to make suggestions on ways to make better use of these sites in education today.

Among the answers provided, the following stand out: facilitating access for students, forming small groups, preparing practical activities to be carried out at the site itself (not limited to a guided tour), having supported graphic material suitable for the public, having online information about the site and its characteristics, or more help and support from public administrations.

In this context, as a dissemination strategy, it would also be advisable to use attractive teaching resources that allow the transmission of knowledge in an effective way, as well as the use of low-cost and easily accessible materials [49]. Several authors have also emphasized the importance of didactic alternatives and the implementation of innovative and multisensory activities for all types of audiences [26].

Respondents were then asked which of the key competences included in the official curriculum for this educational stage were those that would most reinforce the implementation of activities and projects with students at paleontological sites. Respondents highlighted, above all, social and citizenship competences; learning to learn competence; mathematical competence and competence in science, technology and engineering; and competence in cultural awareness and expression.

Respondents were optionally asked to complete the previous question indicating how they think the selected key competences would be strengthened. We include the most notable and varied responses from their points of view:

‘In general, I think it would be reinforced by bringing this knowledge as much as possible to the reality of the students, in order to achieve greater integration and empathy in them’.

‘Preparation of the outing in the classroom, combining topics on Paleontology, Earth Sciences but also other branches of knowledge (project-based learning). Students could prepare a topic/concept to explain it in class to their classmates. The visit to the site and the emphasis on caring for the environment has a very positive impact on citizenship competence’.

The following question aimed to find out what respondents’ perception of the usefulness of paleontological sites was, beyond being able to enhance some of the key competences of the curriculum, by indicating the skills they thought could be enhanced in such contexts. Most respondents answered with alternatives of the key competences, although there are some interesting specifications, like the following: ‘Naturalistic competence and relating to the environment, the ability to work in a different environment than the classroom. […] The rest depend on the activity: if they participate in digging, they also practice motor skills, certain types of tests or exercises can help them to train problem solving’. ‘Observation, orientation, manual dexterity’.

For the following six questions, a Likert scale [50] format of choice between 5 categories was used, where 1 was ‘do not agree at all’ and 5 was ‘totally agree’, and Figure 8 shows the results with 8A to 8F graphics. While responses to questions 8A, 8B and 8E are clearly favorable, with only scores of 4–5, questions 8C, 8D and 8F show a greater disparity. Thus, it seems that the respondents are clear that a visit to the sites is complementary to classroom lessons and enriching for being in a natural environment and for being able to be introduced in the curricula of Secondary Education and university. However, there is a clear tie between those who believe that activities at a site will be enriching regardless of the students’ prior knowledge and those who believe that success would depend on the level of prior knowledge so that the activity would be clearly worthwhile. Approximately a quarter of the respondents do not believe that working at a paleontological site can improve transversal skills such as teamwork or critical observation and problem solving. Finally, only 20% of the respondents believe that the success of the activities does not depend on the proximity of the sites to the school, while a large majority do consider this to be a determining factor.

This disparity of opinions could be due to the importance given by the respondents to the development of previous activities with the students, activities that allow them to have a general knowledge base about the site. In geology and paleontology, we usually work with concepts and ideas that require a high level of abstraction on the part of the students, as can happen when talking in terms of hundreds of millions of years or when talking about evolutionary traits in living beings that, in many cases, can only be deduced from the biased and limited information offered by many fossil remains.

On the other hand, it is also worth noting the difference of opinions regarding the greater or lesser development by the students of transversal skills such as teamwork or problem-solving abilities. This aspect could be due to how the respondents understand that a visit to a paleontological site could be approached. If the visit consists of a guided tour in which one or more specialists and teachers limit themselves to explaining the characteristics of the site, there is no option for students to develop skills related to teamwork, problem solving or critical observation. However, if an active role of the students is pursued in the visit and they are the protagonists of different activities in situ, they will be able to develop these skills.

For the last four queries, the Likert scale was also used (Figure 9G–J graphics). The percentage indicated with a value ‘0’ belongs to those who did not answer the question. In these questions, there is more disagreement in the answers. There is an approximately equal percentage of respondents who think that the disadvantages of paleontological site activities outweigh the advantages, compared to those who think the opposite.

Although to a lesser extent, there is again disagreement about the benefits of using ICTs as a teaching aid at paleontological sites, such as augmented reality, which has been used successfully at some sites in the Madrid region (Spain).

Finally, both the question related to increasing awareness and appreciation of the natural environment and heritage, as well as innovative educational strategies, there seems to be broad agreement on the advantages of activities at paleontological sites.

7. Discussion

Here are presented a series of proposals for new projects based on current curricular contents related to geology, paleontology and evolution, and data collected from the expert questionnaire.

Special emphasis is placed on the fact that it is essential to develop activities and experiences that promote knowledge and direct contact of students with the natural environment, thus leading to an increase in their level of involvement in the search for solutions to real problems related to the territory in which they live (Figure 10). This aspect is fundamental in the current Spanish educational panorama, which stresses the importance of creating learning situations that bring students closer to real problems that may be present in their daily lives. In this way, a greater involvement of the student in the learning process is achieved, which is usually associated with truly meaningful learning that lasts over time.

Thus, understanding a field trip or a visit to a paleontological site as part of a project or learning situation that should not be limited to the school trip itself, it is considered essential both the previous research and contextualization activities, as well as the activities after the trip, focused on students to finish consolidating all the knowledge acquired over several working sessions. The idea is that, in the end, students will be able to acquire all the key competences included in the educational curriculum.

The activities prior to the visit to the paleontological site would be research and contextualization. Students will research the site: its history, the fossils found, the geological epoch to which it belongs and the type of organisms that lived there, etc. Class presentations, discussions and concept mapping could be performed to understand the geological and paleontological context of the site. This would allow them to arrive at the site with a solid base of knowledge and increase their interest and participation. The Spanish geoparks and visitable paleontological sites included in Table 1 would serve as an example to reinforce these ideas, since they have a good amount of interesting scientific information published, both in printed and online journals.

Hands-on paleontology workshops could also be organized where students can experiment with fossil replicas, excavation tools, and recording techniques. They could simulate a sandbox dig, learn to identify different types of fossils, and practice making record cards. Activities like this would give them an idea of how paleontologists work and prepare them for the site experience.

Another example of a pre-activity would be the preparation of a field notebook where each student could record their observations, drawings and reflections during the visit. It could be a more directed activity if they were provided with a guide with questions and activities to do at the site, such as identifying rock types, looking for fossils, and observing stratigraphy. This field notebook would be a valuable tool for reinforcing knowledge and reflecting on the experience after the site visit. Furthermore, it allows the development of several of the key competencies described in Section 5 of this work. In this way, students would be able to improve not only scientific skills but also the ability to correctly express their observations from a linguistic and artistic perspective, as they must accurately describe and draw what they observe.

As for the activities after the field trip, it would be interesting if they were focused on the elaboration of an evaluable final product that includes concepts and ideas worked on from the previous activities, so that everything can be understood as a single project with several phases. An example could be an analysis of the fossils found (if collection is allowed), photographs taken at the site (if possible) or the elaboration using clay of replicas and molds that simulate the original fossil remains found by the specialists at the site. These fossils could be classified according to their type, descriptive cards could be drawn up and the findings could be compared with the information previously researched. This activity would allow students to apply the knowledge acquired and develop observation and analysis skills.

Another option could be to prepare a report or presentation on the site visit, including their observations, conclusions, and reflections. Photography, drawings and diagrams could be used to illustrate their work and share with the rest of the class. This activity would encourage scientific communication and teamwork.

Another example of developing a final product that can be evaluated by the teacher could be the creation of a virtual paleontological museum. Using digital tools, students could create a virtual paleontological museum with fossils found, photographs, drawings and explanatory texts. The exhibits could be organized by geological epochs, types of organisms or specific topics, so that this activity would allow them to apply their knowledge in a creative way and share their learning with other classmates, or even with students from other grades and educational levels. In short, this would be a good opportunity to work on interdisciplinarity within the framework of biology, geology and environmental sciences, using methodologies that combine knowledge from different disciplines to learn and solve problems.

Coinciding with all the previous experiences presented in the chapter on paleontological heritage as an educational resource within the framework of the 2030 Agenda [32], the opinions of the professionals in paleontological education and research who have participated in this study advocate active, interdisciplinary learning, which incorporates Earth and environmental sciences, is essential to introduce concepts such as sustainable development.

This approach aims to promote sensitivity towards geosciences, going through paleontological sites including unique fossils or paleontological evidence [13], in order to acquire the concepts and principles of geoheritage and geoconservation, as seen in previous experiences [11,12].

This work highlights that the subject is included within what is known as STEM disciplines, so the methodology will be aimed at the development of scientific tasks and projects appropriate to their age, in which research work will be carried out, both in the field and in the laboratory, using the methodologies and instruments of the biological and geological sciences, to awaken in the students the creative spirit, as well as the scientific vocation.

8. Conclusions

Here are synthesized the most important concepts and ideas about geology, paleontology, and evolution for their development at a paleontological site, based on Spanish secondary education curricula and the analysis of responses from paleontology and geology experts collected in a survey specifically for this article. This work allows us to identify the most important aspects to consider when implementing activities, projects, and learning situations with students at different educational levels at paleontological sites.

The study reflects a series of steps for developing good practices in visiting paleontological sites under an integrative vision that different professionals in geology, paleontology, teaching, and scientific outreach believe should be considered when developing learning situations outside the classroom at paleontological sites. These include the following:

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Research and contextualization activities prior to the site visit provide a solid foundation of knowledge and foster interest and participation.

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Hands-on paleontology workshops, where students can experiment with fossil replicas, excavation tools, and recording techniques, will give them insight into the work of paleontologists and prepare them for the site experience.

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Keeping a field notebook with observations, drawings, and reflections during the activity will be a valuable tool for reinforcing knowledge and reflecting on the experience after the visit.

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After the field visit, it is important to produce a final, evaluable product that includes the concepts and ideas discussed in the previous activities (fossil analysis, photographs, drawings and diagrams, or replicas and casts) to improve scientific communication and teamwork.

Developing activities and experiences that foster students’ knowledge of and direct contact with the natural environment is essential to increasing their level of engagement in finding solutions to real-life problems related to the region in which they live. Knowledge of paleontological heritage as an educational resource within the framework of the 2030 Agenda directly contributes to SDGs 4 and 15, but others are also important to consider, such as SDGs 13 and 14.

However, to make truly effective use of paleontological sites from the point of view of formal education, the development of activities and projects in formal education must be fully justified based on the guidelines established in the curricula. If all the concepts and ideas about Earth and life sciences that will be addressed at paleontological sites are not reflected in the curriculum, learning will be much less productive.