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Review

A Review of Carboniferous-Triassic Tectonic-Magmatic Evolution of Luang Prabang–Loei Metallogenic Belt in Laos and Thailand and Implications for Gold–Copper Mineralization

by
Linnan Guo
1,*,
Khin Zaw
2,
Shusheng Liu
1,
Yongfei Yang
1,
Fei Nie
3,
Songyang Wu
1,
Meifeng Shi
1,
Chunmei Huang
1,
Xiangfei Zhang
1,
Huimin Liang
1,
Xiangting Zeng
1 and
Siwei Xu
1
1
Chengdu Center, China Geological Survey, Chengdu 610081, China
2
CODES Centre of Ore Deposit and Earth Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
3
Research Center of Applied Geology, China Geological Survey, Chengdu 610036, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Geosciences 2025, 15(2), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15020068
Submission received: 24 October 2024 / Revised: 8 February 2025 / Accepted: 12 February 2025 / Published: 16 February 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zircon U-Pb Geochronology Applied to Tectonics and Ore Deposits)
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Abstract

:
The Luang Prabang (Laos)–Loei (Thailand) metallogenic belt is located on the northwestern margin of the Indochina Block. It is one of the most important gold–copper metallogenic belts in Southeast Asia. This region underwent tectonic and magmatic evolution in the late Paleozoic-Mesozoic period within the Paleo-Tethys realm, resulting in complex metallogenic processes. Consequently, epithermal Au-Ag, porphyry-skarn Au-Cu, and hydrothermal vein-type gold deposits were formed. However, the genetic type of the vein-type gold deposits is still not fully understood. The relationship between the three types of gold deposits and the regional tectonic evolution has not been summarized up until today. We summarize the previous mineralization characteristics and exploration data of commonly known deposits and combine them with new evidence and ore deposit insights from our recent studies on the source and evolution of ore-forming fluids in the region. We confirm that the hydrothermal vein-type gold deposits in the belt are typical orogenic gold deposits. Based on previous regional tectonic-magmatic-metallogenic studies, metallogenic characteristics, and temporal and spatial distribution of three types of typical gold–copper deposits in the belt, we synthesize and establish a regional metallogenic model related to the subduction-closure of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean and subsequent continental–continental collision process, resulting in the formation of epithermal Au-Ag during the late Permian-early Triassic subduction, porphyry-skarn Au-Cu in the early–middle Triassic period during the closure of the ocean, and orogenic Au during the late Triassic collision. Since there are few reports on the geochemical characteristics of gold–copper deposits and their related magmatic rocks, the potential for gold–copper mineralization and their links to the magmatic rocks in the belt still needs further study.

1. Introduction

The Luang Prabang (Laos)–Loei (Thailand) metallogenetic belt, located along the northwestern margin of the Indochina Block, is one of the most important gold–copper metallogenic belts in Southeast Asia [1,2] (Figure 1). More than 40 Au-Cu-polymetallic deposits (occurrences) have been discovered in the belt, with a total resource of about 200 tons of gold, 1 million tons of copper, and 1000 tons of silver [3,4,5]. The Luang Prabang–Loei metallogenic belt is part of the eastern section of the Tethyan tectonic–metallogenic domain and has undergone tectonic changes during the early Paleozoic to Mesozoic Proto-Paleo Tethys tectonic evolution, accompanied by complex tectonic-magmatic-metallogenic activities [2,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13]. Hence, it is an ideal region for the study of Paleo Tethys tectonic-magmatic evolution and Au-Cu mineralization in the East Tethys domain and Indochina Block. Current studies on this belt focus on the duration of magmatism and regional tectonic evolution [14,15,16,17,18,19,20], and studies on mineralization in this belt are mostly concentrated at the deposit scale [21,22,23,24,25].
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Figure 1. Maps showing (A) tectonic units of Laos and neighboring areas, (B) simplified geology of the Luang Prabang–Loei metallogenic belt (modified after [5]). The red arrows beside the faults show the direction of the strike-slip fault. The data of zircon U-Pb dating are respectively referenced from [2,4,14,15,16,19,20,22,35,36,37,38,41,42,44,45].
Figure 1. Maps showing (A) tectonic units of Laos and neighboring areas, (B) simplified geology of the Luang Prabang–Loei metallogenic belt (modified after [5]). The red arrows beside the faults show the direction of the strike-slip fault. The data of zircon U-Pb dating are respectively referenced from [2,4,14,15,16,19,20,22,35,36,37,38,41,42,44,45].
Geosciences 15 00068 g001
Previous exploration and research activities indicate that the Luang Prabang–Loei metallogenic belt predominantly features the development of porphyry-skarn gold–copper deposits, epithermal gold–silver deposits, and hydrothermal vein-type gold deposits. Among them, the metallogenic and geological characteristics and their formation of porphyry-skarn and epithermal deposits are significant ore types in the region [2]. However, the classification of hydrothermal vein-type gold deposits, as seen in the case of the Phapon and Sanakham gold deposits in Laos, is still controversial. In addition, the metallogenic setting of the above-three deposit types and the Paleo-Tethys evolution along the western margin of the Indochina Block is still not thoroughly documented. The comprehensive summary of the regional metallogenic history pertaining to the Luang Prabang–Loei metallogenic belt has yet to be accomplished. In this study, we gathered, reviewed, and deliberated upon earlier research findings regarding the petrology, mineral deposits, geochemistry, and geochronology of the Luang Prabang–Loei metallogenic belt. In addition, by integrating these previous metallogenic studies with the latest research outcomes on the Phapon and Sanakham vein-type gold deposits in recent years [5,24,25,26,27,28,29], we examined the origin of these vein-type gold deposits. In addition, we provided a summary of the temporal and spatial distribution of gold deposits within the belt. We established the formation of the Luang Prabang–Loei metallogenic belt during the Paleo-Tethys tectonic-magmatic-metallogenic evolution to provide an empirical framework for furthering mineral exploration in the region. In addition, this study will contribute to the formation of these deposits and the understanding of regional metallogenic belts located around the Indochina Block.

2. Regional Tectonic-Magmatic Evolution

The Luang Prabang–Loei metallogenic belt, situated in a unique global tectonic context, has preserved the geological history of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean’s evolution along the northwest margin of the Indochina Block. Additionally, it has recorded the entire process of subduction, collision, and orogenesis between the Indochina and the Sibumasu blocks, coinciding with the closure of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean [15,16,30,31]. Since the breakup of the Gondwana continent in the early Paleozoic period, its northwest margin has successively separated into the East Qiangtang–Simao–Indochina Block, the West Qiangtang–Sibumasu Block, and the Lhasa–Western Myanmar Block. With the opening and closure of the original Paleo to Neo-Tethys Oceans, these geological blocks underwent gradual accretion along the southern margin of the Eurasian continent. This process was accompanied by the formation of multiple ophiolite mélange and magmatic belts during the Mesozoic period [32,33]. Among them, the Changning–Menglian–Chiang Mai junction/suture zone emerged as a result of the subduction of the Proto- to Paleo-Tethys oceanic slab during the Indosinian orogeny. As a major boundary of the primary tectonic unit, it distinguishes the western Sibumasu Block and the eastern Simao Indosinian Block [9,33,34], forming the Luang Prabang–Loei tectonic-metallogenic belt on the northwest edge of the Indochina Block (Figure 1A). Based on the results of geochronological and geochemical studies of regional magmatic rocks, the Luang Prabang–Loei metallogenic belt probably experienced four stages of tectonic-magmatic activities related to Proto- to Paleo-Tethys evolution [20], including (1) late Ordovician–early Silurian, (2) Carboniferous–middle Permian, (3) late Permian–middle Triassic, and (4) late Triassic.

2.1. Late Ordovician–Early Silurian

The oldest known magmatic rocks in the belt are late Ordovician–early Silurian felsic calc-alkaline volcanic rocks, which are exposed in the central part of the mineralized belt, at the border between Laos and Thailand (Figure 1B), including tuff and dacite in Laos (ca. 450–415 Ma [35]), as well as dacite, andesite, and rhyolite in the Phu Lon area, northeast of Loei, Thailand (ca. 445–420 Ma [4,36,37]). The SiO2 content of the early Paleozoic rhyolite in this set ranges from 76.03% to 77.85%; The content of Al2O3 is relatively high, about 11.62–12.69%. It is characterized by sight enrichment of light rare earth element (LREE), sight depletion of heavy rare earth element (HREE), and moderate negative Eu anomalies. At the same time, rhyolite is enriched in large ion lithophile elements (LILE) such as Th, U, K, and Sr, and relatively depleted in high-field strength elements (HFSE) such as Nb, Ta, P, and Ti. It belongs to highly differentiated I-type granite [4], indicating that magma was mainly formed in an environment of active continental margins, similar to terrestrial arc volcanic rocks. The belt was believed to have been formed in a subduction-related tectonic environment during the late Ordovician to early Silurian [20], which may have been due to the subduction of the Proto-Tethyan oceanic plate beneath the Indochina plate, forming the continental arc volcanic rocks in the Loei area.

2.2. Carboniferous–Middle Permian

Magmatic rocks in Carboniferous–middle Permian are represented by widely distributed volcanic rocks and hypabyssal intrusive rocks (Figure 1B). They comprise gabbro, diabase, basalt, and tuff in the Luang Prabang region (ca. 340–265 Ma [15,20,38]), andesite and basalt to the south of Pak Lay region (ca. 320–310 Ma [14]), and andesite and rhyolite to the east of Pak Lay region (ca. 350–330 Ma [14]). The basalt samples from the Luang Prabang region have low TiO2 (0.55–0.79%) content and high Al2O3 content (9.42–20.43%), are relatively enriched in LREE and LILE, deficient in HFSE, and have low Sm/Th ratio (0.86–1.96) and high Th/Y ratio (0.11–0.32), showing the characteristics of arc volcanic rocks, indicating that its magma may have originated from the enriched mantle formed by the reaction of the depleted mantle, subduction sediments, and accompanying fluids through water–rock reactions [39]. The Ba/Th (72–227), Ba/La (24–36), and Ba/Nb (26–244) ratios of the samples vary widely, while the (La/Sm)N (1.6–2.1) changes slightly, indicating that its source area is mainly affected by the fluid released by subduction oceanic crust dehydration [15]. Geochemistry, geochronology, and fossil evidence indicate that the Luang Prabang–Loei metallogenic belt was dominated by a back-arc basin setting during the early Carboniferous to Permian period. The Paleo-Tethys Ocean, as well as its branches in the west, were subducted eastward below the Indochina Block, forming the continental marginal arc volcanic rocks [20,38,40].

2.3. Late Permian–Middle Triassic

The late Permian–middle Triassic magmatic rocks are widely distributed in the entire metallogenic belt, represented by intermediate-felsic volcanic rocks (ca. 260–240 Ma [4,16,19,41]) in Luang Prabang and Xaignaboury, Laos, intermediate-basic volcanic rocks (ca. 255–245 Ma [22]) near Phetchabun, Thailand, and intermediate-acid intrusive rocks to the northeast of Loei, Thailand (ca. 248–240 Ma [2,42]).
The calc-alkaline andesite from Xaignaboury has low (87Sr/86Sr)i values (mean 0.70378) and positive εNd(t) values (mean 4.14). The high LREE/HREE and LILE/HFSE ratios and low Ba/Th ratios (21.45–73.21, with an average value of 45.35 [4]) indicate that the andesite was formed in the island-arc environment, originated from the mantle, and were basically not subjected to the fluid modification of the accretionary orogenic subduction zone. The Loei back-arc basin had weak magmatic activity in the middle Permian, but strong magmatic activity in the late Permian and early–middle Triassic, forming a series of continental arc volcanic rocks [14]. Epithermal and porphyry-skarn-type deposits were formed during this time frame. The Phu Lon and Puthep Au-Cu skarn deposits in Thailand are, respectively, related to a diorite intrusion (244–240 Ma [42,43]) and a diorite and monzonitic porphyry intrusion (~242 Ma [2]). The Chatree epithermal Au-Ag deposit in Thailand is hosted in andesitic breccias and volcanic sedimentary rocks (259–250 Ma [22]). All the magmatic-metallogenic activities can be related to the continuous eastward subduction of the Paleo-Tethys Oceanic plate and subsequent ocean closure [19,20,40].

2.4. Late Triassic

Late Triassic magmatic events are characterized from the north to the south by intermediate felsic volcanic rocks, including tuff (ca. 226–215 Ma [44]) that are distributed near Luang Prabang, andesite and breccia (ca. 235–224 Ma [4,20,45]) near Xaignaboury, and intermediate acid volcanic rocks (ca. 236–220 Ma [2,20]) near Pak Lay and Loei. Petrologic and petrogeochemical studies show that volcanic rocks surrounding Luang Prabang and the Xaignaboury area have a high LREE/HREE ratio, defective Nb, Ta, and Sr, and a high positive εHf(t) value (9.87–12.13), showing the characteristics of a continental margin arc source [20,44,45], indicating a long and continuous continental margin evolution from early Triassic to late Triassic in the belt [2]. The hydrothermal vein-type Phapon and Sanakham gold deposits in the north-central section of the metallogenic belt are related to the late Triassic tectonic-magmatic activity [5,24,27]. The important highly mineralized Permian to Triassic magmatism associated with epithermal Au and porphyry-related skarn Cu-Au in the Loei belt extends into eastern Myanmar, as evidenced by the reported Triassic Kyaing Tong granite (219 Ma, 220 Ma) and Late Permian Tachileik granite (266 Ma) in the eastern Shan State, eastern Myanmar [46,47,48]. Recent U-Pb dating also indicates 207–216 Ma for the Kyaing Tong granites and 246–250 Ma for Tachileik granites [49]. Hu et al. [50] also recently recorded early Carboniferous and late Permian magmatic rocks in eastern Myanmar. LA-ICPMS zircon U-Pb ages of magmatic rocks in western Cambodia that extend from eastern Thailand yielded 200–170 Ma [51].

3. Main Metallogenesis and Spatio-Temporal Distribution

The formation of gold-polymetallic deposits in the Luang Praban–Loei metallogenetic belt was controlled by the subduction–collision processes of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean on the northwestern edge of the Indochina Block, which can be summarized into three ore types: porphyry-skarn Au-Cu deposits, epithermal Au-Ag deposits, and hydrothermal vein-type Au deposits. This study classified the hydrothermal vein-type gold deposits as orogenic gold deposits (see discussion below for details). This section will introduce the nature and spatio-temporal distribution of the three types of deposits and their genetic relationship with regional tectonic-magmatic processes. At the same time, six typical medium- to large-scale deposits were herein also selected and described for a brief but concise overview of their geological/geochemical characteristics and mineralization processes (Figure 1B).

3.1. Spatio-Temporal Distribution and Characteristics of Gold–Copper Deposits

Based on the results of this study and previous studies, the spatio-temporal distribution and metallogenic characteristics of the gold–copper-bearing porphyry-skarn type, epithermal gold, and orogenic gold deposits in the Luang Prabang–Loei belt are summarized below (Figure 2, Table 1):
(1) Porphyry-skarn deposits are represented by Pangkuam in Laos, and Phu Lon, Puthep, and Phu Thap Fah in Thailand. They are mainly distributed in the central and southern part of the belt (Figure 1B) and are related to early–middle Triassic intermediate-felsic intrusive rocks. The ore bodies primarily exhibit a vein- or lens-shaped morphology, normally located within intrusive rocks and the contact zones between these intrusive rocks and the surrounding wall rock. Hydrothermal alteration is characterized by skarn formation, potassic alteration, and propylitization. The ore-forming elements are gold and copper, and the ore-forming fluids are primarily derived from magmatic fluids. The initial fluids are usually characterized by medium-to-high temperature, medium-to-high salinity, and rich in CO2 [2,43].
(2) Epithermal gold deposits are exemplified by Chatree and LD Prospect in the southern section of the metallogenic belt, and they are associated with volcanic activities triggered by the eastward subduction of the Paleo-Tethys oceanic plate during the late Permian–early Triassic. The ore bodies are normally characterized by veins, veinlets, and stockwork veins, veinlets, and stockwork, which occur in late Permian–early Triassic volcanic breccia and sedimentary rocks. The hydrothermal alteration minerals are primarily adularia, quartz, calcite, sericite, chlorite, illite, and montmorillonite. The ore-forming elements are gold and silver, and the ore-forming fluids were mainly mixed with magmatic fluids (volcanic-sub volcanic hydrothermal fluids) and meteoric water, characterized by medium-low temperature and medium-low salinity [22,52].
(3) Orogenic gold deposits such as Phapon and Sanakham in Laos are newly recognized gold deposit types that are located in the central-northern section of the metallogenetic belt (Figure 1B) [24,25,26,28]. These two deposits are controlled by secondary faults of the NE-NNE trending Luang Prabang fault zone. The ore bodies mainly consist of auriferous quartz or calcite veins that fill faults and fractures. The wall rock alteration is mainly characterized by silicification, sericitization, and carbonation. Gold is the single ore-forming element, and the ore-forming fluids are characterized by medium-low temperature, medium-low salinity, and are rich in CO2. Gold precipitation processes are closely related to fluid immiscibility/boiling caused by fault activity. According to hydrothermal calcite U-Pb dating, the timing of gold mineralization at the Phapon gold deposit is 221.6 ± 7.6 Ma [29]. Combined with regional geological evolution, the orogenic gold deposits were possibly formed during the closure of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean in the late Triassic period, triggered by collision and collage between the Sibumasu Block and the Indochina Block [2,53].

3.2. Porphyry-Skarn Gold–Copper Deposit

3.2.1. Pangkuam Au-Cu Deposit

The Pangkuam Au-Cu deposit is located in the middle segment of the metallogenic belt, 42 km to the northwest of Pak Lay, western Laos (Figure 3). It has been confirmed to contain gold resources amounting to 20.5 tons at an average grade of 2.41 g/t of gold, as well as copper resources totaling 37,000 tons with a copper content of 0.69 wt% Cu [3].
The outcrop of the mining area is characterized by a series of sedimentary rocks formed in continental, shallow marine facies, represented by Carboniferous-Permian limestone and argillaceous sandstone. The Permian-Triassic andesite is the main ore-hosting rock. Granodiorite is exposed in the southeast of the mining area but has no direct contact relationship with the ore body. The gold and copper bodies are vein-shaped or stratiform-shaped, mainly occurring in andesite and the contact zone between andesite and marble. The main orebodies, including No. I, II, and IV, are longer than 1 km with a depth of 200–250 m, and the average thicknesses are 7~8 m. The orebodies are controlled by the secondary fault of the NNE-trending Luang Prabang–Loei fault. Alteration of wall rock is represented by skarn, potassic, sericite, propylitization, silicification, etc. Mineralization styles include breccia, massive, vein, and disseminated, and the massive gold (copper–gold) ore has a higher grade [23,54]. The ore minerals are mainly pyrite, chalcopyrite, magnetite, pyrrhotite, and bornite, followed by natural gold, arsenopyrite, specularite, and stibnite.
The fluid inclusion study shows that the ore-forming fluids of Pangkuam belong to a low-salinity (5.34 wt% NaCl eq.) NaCl-H2O-CO2 system [55]. The volatile content of the fluid generally decreased, and the salinity increased (≥20 wt% NaCl eq.), along with temperature decrease during the ore-forming process. Based on geological and geochemical characteristics, it is likely that the initial ore-forming fluid originated from the exsolution of mantle-derived magmas and was rich in gold and copper. During the magmatic process, high-temperature and low-salinity ore-forming fluids rose along the fault system, had large-scale water–rock reaction with andesitic wall rock, and had extensive boiling in the fault tectonic system. Copper mineralization occurred mainly in the early sulfide stage, which was related to large-scale water–rock reactions and degradation alteration of skarn. Gold mineralization occurred mainly during the late sulfide stage, which was related to large-scale boiling.

3.2.2. Phu Lon Cu-Au Deposit

The Phu Lon deposit is located in the central part of the mineralization belt, on the right bank of the Mekong River in northern Thailand (Figure 4). It has proved copper resources of 129,600 tons at 2.4 wt% Cu, and gold resources of 3.46 tons at 0.64 g/t Au [2].
Exposed strata in the mining area are mainly Devonian volcanic-sedimentary rocks, Permian-early Triassic volcanic rocks, and locally Quaternary sediments. The Devonian strata can be divided into two types: (1) marine sedimentary rocks composed of dolomite limestone and thin-layer micrite limestone, (2) volcanic rocks composed of andesitic tuff, breccia, hornblende andesite, conglomerate, shale, and rhyolitic sandstone [21]. The Permian-early Triassic volcanic rocks are mainly composed of rhyolite, andesite, and dacite. A group of S-N trending faults and their secondary faults control the production of diorite with I-type adakite characteristics [43]. It is exposed in the center of the mining area, with zircon U-Pb dating of 240.6 ± 1.2 Ma [42]. The contact zone between diorite and carbonate wall rock develops skarn alteration, and the mineralization stage can be divided into skarn and quartz sulfide stages. The main mineral assemblages in the skarn stage are garnet, pyroxene, and magnetite. Quartz, water-bearing minerals (epidote, chlorite), and metal sulfides (bornite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, etc.) were mainly precipitated in the quartz sulfide stage, accompanied by gold deposition.
Fluid inclusion studies indicated that the initial ore-forming fluids were of a high temperature and high salinity (468 °C, 23 wt% NaCl eq.) [43]. Fluid inclusions in garnets contain hematite sub-minerals, indicating an oxidizing ore-forming environment. Combining S isotope characteristics (δ34SV-CDT ranges from −2.6 to −1.1‰), the ore-forming fluids and materials are considered to be derived from magmatic fluids. The fluid inclusions in the epidote exhibit low temperature and low salinity (0.5–8 wt% NaCl eq.) characteristics, which may indicate the mixing of magmatic fluids and other source fluids (such as meteoric water) during the mineralization process.

3.2.3. Phu Thap Fah Au Deposit

The Phu Thap Fah deposit (6.4 Mt at 2.19 g/t Au, 0.14 wt% Cu and 3.9 g/t Ag) is located in the central section of the mineralization belt, west to the Loei City (Figure 1). It is hosted in a Permian sedimentary sequence consisting of shale, limestone, muddy sandstone, and carbonaceous siltstone intruded by early Triassic granodiorite (zircon U–Pb age: 245 ± 3 Ma) and late Triassic andesitic dikes (zircon U–Pb age: 221 ± 2 Ma) [2,46,56,57,58,59]. Late Triassic andesitic dykes crosscut the mineralized skarn zone, suggesting skarn formation and gold mineralization probably occurred during the middle Triassic period. The formation of this skarn is, in part, linked to the emplacement of the earliest granodiorite intrusion. Gold occurs as electrum, gold–bismuth, and gold–bismuth–telluride associations, and the gold is confined mainly to the massive pyrrhotite and pyrite with chalcopyrite in the retrograde zone [2,46,56,57,58,59]. The skarn zone can be up to 120 m thick and is cut by fracture/fault-filled calcite and massive sulfide (pyrrhotite with minor pyrite and chalcopyrite).
Late-stage clay- and carbonate-rich faults and fracture fills also occur. The Phu Thap Fah is a pyrrhotite-rich reduced skarn deposit. Homogenization and freezing temperatures of two-phase, liquid-vapor inclusions from the mineralized zone yielded 184 °C to 281 °C and salinities of 2 to 13.9 wt% NaCl eq. Homogenization and freezing temperatures of the salt-bearing fluid inclusions yielded 198 °C to 270 °C and salinities of 35.9 to 41.5 wt% NaCl eq. Laser Raman spectroscopic studies of fluid inclusions indicate the presence of significant gaseous components (approximately 13 mole% CO2, 22 mole% N2, and 65 mole% CH4) and some inclusions contain only CH4. The occurrence of ferropyrosmalite mineral ([Fe, Mn]8Si6O15(OH, Cl)10) is confirmed by Laser Raman spectroscopy [46]. The enrichment of CH4 in the ore fluids is consistent with the mineralized nature of hydrothermal system implying volatile content can be used for targeting high-grade mineralized zone [60].
The δ34SV-CDT composition of pyrite and pyrrhotite displays a wide range from −8.0 to 6.48 ‰ at the Phu Thap Fah deposit suggesting a mixed sulfur source (e.g., magmatic and sedimentary sulfur). The negative sulfur isotope values as low as −8.0 ‰ can be interpreted to have been derived from a sedimentary source such as muddy sandstone, carbonaceous siltstone, and shale in the host sequence. This interpretation is also consistent with the presence of N2 and CH4 in the fluid inclusions, which can also be sourced from the host carbonaceous shale and siltstone [47,59]. The presence of carbonaceous shale and siltstone in the hosting package is critical to forming the reduced skarn assemblages.

3.3. Epithermal Au-Ag Deposits

The representative Chatree epithermal deposit is located in the southern section of the metallogenetic belt, about 300 km to the north of Bangkok (Figure 5). It is the largest epithermal deposit in Southeast Asia, having proven gold and silver resources of 106.4 tons and 916.2 tons, with an average grade of 0.65 g/t and 5.6 g/t, respectively.
The strata exposed in the mining area are late Permian intermediate-mafic volcanic rocks and breccia, late Permian—early Triassic volcanic-sedimentary rocks, and volcanic breccia (zircon U-Pb age of 250 ± 6 Ma [22]. Among them, the late Permian andesitic breccia and the late Permian-early Triassic siltstone, carbonaceous mudstone, and pyroxene breccia are the main ore-hosting rocks. Granodiorite stock, with a Re-Os age of 244 ± 1 Ma [61], is exposed in the southern part of the mining area but a direct-contact relationship with the ore bodies is not observed. Gold mineralization is characterized by veins, veinlets, and stockworks. The mineralization belt is approximately 800–1800 m in length and 200 m in depth. The length of a single quartz-vein ore body is about 100–300 m, and the width varies greatly, ranging from 1 mm to 3 m. The ore minerals are primarily pyrite and a small amount of chalcopyrite and sphalerite. The gangue minerals are mainly quartz and calcite, with a small amount of adularia, illite, chlorite, etc.
Oxygen isotopes (δ18OV-SMOW) of hydrothermal quartz vary from +10.4‰ to +11.7 ‰, and the δ18O of ore-forming fluids is approximately −3‰ [61]. Paleomagnetic data indicate that the deposit was formed near the equator [62]. Considering the main strata in the mining area are the Permian and Triassic coastal facies sediments, the initial ore-forming fluid, therefore, may be seawater or a mixture of magmatic fluids and meteoric water. The fluid inclusion study shows that the mineralization temperature was between 150~250 °C and the salinity was between 0.2~2.2 wt% NaCl eq., indicating that meteoric water had a significant contribution to mineralization [52]. Fluid boiling occurred and led to rapid precipitation of gold and silver during the mineralization process, with an estimated mineralization depth of 900–1000 m [61]. The 40Ar/39Ar dating of adularia is 250.9 ± 0.8 Ma [61], indicating that its mineralization occurred from the late Permian to early Triassic period. Based on the geological characteristics of the strata in the mining area, it is considered that mineralization is related to the transformation of volcanic and intrusive magmatic activities.
Table 1. Mineralization styles of major gold–copper deposits in the Luang Prabang–Loei metallogenic belt.
Table 1. Mineralization styles of major gold–copper deposits in the Luang Prabang–Loei metallogenic belt.
No.DepositDeposit TypeResource GradeHost RocksIntrusions/AgesMetallogenic AgeAlteration MineralsReferences
1PhaponOrogenicAu, 20 tAu, 6.28 g/tLimestoneNo known intrusion221.6 ± 7.6 Ma (calcite, U-Pb)Calcite, siderite, magnitite, realgar[24,25,26,29,63]
2Pangkuam Porphyry-skarnAu, 20.5 t123456Cu, 37 ktCu, 0.69 wt% 123456Au, 2.41 g/t Limestone, argillaceous siltstoneIntermediate-mafic intrusionsContemporaneous with intrusionsQuartz, sericite, epidote, chlorite, K-feldspar, garnet[3,23,53]
3Phu Lon Porphyry-skarnAu, 3.5 t123456Cu, 130 ktCu, 2.4 wt%123456Au, 0.64 g/t Limestone, volcaniclasticsDiorite and quartz monzonite porphyry/244~240 MaContemporaneous with intrusionsGarnet, pyroxene, K-feldspar, tremolite, epidote, chlorite, calcite[2,40,41]
4SanakhamOrogenicAu, 10.6 tAu, 3.05 g/tQuartz monzodiorite and slateQuartz monzodiorite Late Triassic (inferred)Quartz, sericite, carbonate[27,28]
5Puthep Porphyry-skarnAu, 15.6 t123456Cu, 1005 ktAu, 0.078 g/t 123456Cu, 0.501 wt%Sandstone, siltstone, and sandstoneDiorite and Monzodiorite porphyry/242.4 ± 1.3 MaContemporaneous with intrusionsK-feldspar, sericite, garnet, epidote, chlorite, calcite[2]
6Phu Thap FahSkarnAu, 14 t123456Cu, 9 kt123456Ag, 25 tAu, 2.19 g/t123456Cu, 0.14 wt%123456Ag, 3.9 g/tSiliciclastics and limestoneGranodiorite/245 ± 3 MaContemporaneous with intrusionsGarnet, pyroxene, quartz, epidote, calcite, chlorite[2]
7Khao Phanom PhaSkarnNo dataNo dataFelsic andesitic123456volcaniclasticsNo known intrusionNo dataquartz, tremolite,123456sericite[2]
8Wang YaiLow-S epithermalNo dataNo dataVolcaniclastics, 123456volcanic sandstone Post-ore diorite/188.5 ± 0.3 MaLate Permian–early Triassic (inferred)Quartz, pyrite, calcite, adularia, sericite, chlorite[2]
9LD Prospect Low-S epithermalAu, 3.2 t123456Ag, 290 t1.1 g/t Au12345610 g/t AgAndesiteNo known intrusionLate Permian-early Triassic (inferred)Quartz, pyrite, calcite, adularia, sericite, chlorite[2]
10Chatree Low-S epithermalAu, 106.4 t123456Ag, 916.2 tAu, 0.65 g/t123456Ag, 5.6 g/tAndesite breccias, volcanogenic sedimentary rocksGranodiorite/244 ± 1 Ma250.9 ± 0.8 Ma (Adularia, 40Ar/39Ar)Quartz, calcite, adularia, sericite, chlorite, illite, smectite[2,22,51]

3.4. Orogenic Gold Deposits

3.4.1. Phapon Gold Deposit

The Phapon gold deposit is located in the northern part of the belt, approximately 30 km northeast of Luang Prabang City, Laos (Figure 6). It has proven gold resources of 20 t, with an average grade of 6.28 g/t [26].
The strata in the Phapon gold area include the Carboniferous, Permian, and Triassic sequences. The Carboniferous strata are a set of fine-grained clastic carbonate and marine carbonaceous sedimentary rocks. The lower Permian unit, composed of a thick layer of microcrystalline limestone and bioclastic limestone, is the main ore-hosting rock and is lenticular in shape and shows strong ductile-brittle shear deformation in the mining area. The upper Permian is mainly composed of grayish-green basalt, andesite, and andesitic tuffaceous rocks. The middle-upper Triassic is mainly composed of purple-red sandstone, siltstone, and conglomerate. The main structure is the NE-trending ductile-brittle Luang Prabang shear zone that cuts through the whole mining area at Phapon [63]. There are five vein-shaped orebodies discovered in Phapon, which are hosted in the lower Permian limestone and controlled by subparallel NNW-trending brittle faults. Among them, the No. V-1 ore body accounts for more than 90% of the gold reserves of Phapon. The ore body generally strikes 330–355°, dips 40–50° to the SW, is more than 600 m in length, continues to 350 m in depth, and is 0.3 to 10 m (average 3.4 m) in thickness [24]. The gold deposit is composed of gold-bearing calcite veins that fill the fault zone, as well as the surrounding alteration zones of limonite and siderite. Hydrothermal minerals are primarily calcite, followed by pyrite, siderite, magnetite, native gold, and a small amount of realgar, and orpiment. Affected by post-ore oxidation and weathering, primary metal sulfides are basically replaced by limonite. Gold occurs in the form of fissure gold or inclusion gold, normally occurring directly within microcracks or between calcite crystals, with a small amount coexisting with limonite or magnetite [26].
Petrography, microthermometry, and the composition of fluid inclusions in the hydrothermal calcites indicate that the ore-forming fluids belong to the NaCl-H2O-CO2 system, with a temperature and salinity variation range of 180–240 °C and 3–10 wt.% NaCl eq. [24,64], and fluid immiscibility was one of the major mechanisms of gold precipitation. The C-O isotope composition of hydrothermal calcite and limestone wall rock exhibit marine carbonate characteristics [26,65]. The H-O isotope composition of the ore-forming fluid falls within the range of metamorphic and magmatic fluids [24,66]. However, there is still controversy over the genesis of the Phapon gold deposit in previous studies: (1) The ore-forming fluids derived from deep magmatic water and mixed with meteoric water during the ore-forming process [65,66]; (2) the ore-forming fluids originated from pressure solution under dynamic metamorphism in shear zones [63]; or (3) low-temperature hydrothermal deposits were controlled by shear zones [67].
Due to controversial interpretations of the origins of the deposit, the authors carried out a series of geological and geochemical studies at Phapon [24,25,26]. The Phapon gold deposit is entirely different from the regional porphyry-skarn and epithermal deposits. Even though it is characterized by low-temperature, quartz-free and locally realgar-orpiment assemblage is like a Carlin-type gold. The gold occurrence in Phapon is free gold but not disseminated “invisible gold”. The locally existing realgar and orpiment are not proven to have a genetic relationship with gold grains; thus, the Carlin-type model is not applicable for Phapon. It is suggested that the Phapon gold deposit has similar characteristics to orogenic gold deposits [68], including (1) a major structural control of the deposits by NNW-trending brittle faults, (2) a lack of metal zonation, (3) occurrence of free gold in calcite, (4) extremely high Au/Ag ratio (much higher than 10, with an average silver grade of 0.05 g/t) of the ores [67], and (5) relative low fluid salinity (average 7.64 wt% NaCl equiv. [66]). During the late Triassic, in addition, the eastward subduction of the Paleo-Tethys oceanic plate triggered a collision between the Sibumasu Block and the Indochina Block [2,29,53]. Combined with the ore geological and geochemical characteristics and regional geological background, the Phapon gold deposit is best considered to be a member of the orogenic deposit class. Although there is no report on regional metamorphism related to the gold mineralization, the Phapon deposit occurred probably along with the regional dynamic metamorphism driven by Indochina–Sibumasu post-collisional magmatism [24,26].

3.4.2. Sanakham Gold Deposit

The Sanakham gold deposit is located in the central part of the metallogenetic belt in Laos, along the left bank of the Mekong River (Figure 7). It is one of the main gold deposits discovered in the belt in recent years, with a gold resource of 10.6 tons, with an average grade of 3.05 g/t Au [28].
The orebodies are hosted in both Carboniferous metasedimentary rocks and middle Triassic magmatic rocks. The upper Carboniferous Nanpo Formation consists of purple-red thick-layered metamorphic siltstone, silty slate, slate, and brown thin-layered feldspar-debris sandstone. The middle Triassic intermediate-acid magmatic rocks are well developed and intruded into the upper Carboniferous low-grade metamorphic rocks as an NNE-trending intrusive stock. Structures in the mine are dominated by an NNE-trending brittle-ductile shear zone, which is basically consistent with the regional Luang Prabang fault belt and controls the occurrence of stocks and gold ore bodies.
More than 10 ore-body groups have been discovered, among which the No. Au 9 ore-body group accounts for 3/4 of the total gold resources. They are vein-shaped, approximately 80–400 m in length, strike NE, and dip to 10–40° SE with a depth of 300–600 m. The average thickness of the ore bodies is 1.5 m, and the average gold grade is 3.05 g/t Au. Ore-host rock is mainly quartz monzodiorite and upper Carboniferous slate. The wall rock alteration includes silicification, sulfidation, sericitization, carbonation, and hornstone alteration, which was controlled by the NE-NNE trending faults. Hydrothermal minerals are primarily quartz, pyrite, and arsenopyrite, and subsequently pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite. Gold grains normally occur as inclusions or within fractures in sulfides.
According to the latest fluid inclusion studies [28], the initial ore-forming fluids of the Sanakham gold deposit belong to a medium-high temperature CH4-CO2 system, which gradually evolved into a medium temperature and medium salinity NaCl-H2O-CO2 ± CH4 system in the main mineralization stage, and then to the medium-low temperature and medium-high salinity NaCl-H2O system in the late mineralization stage. Two fluid immiscibility processes occurred, accompanied by two important gold precipitation events. It was estimated that the P-T conditions for gold precipitation were around 236–65 MPa and 337–272 °C, with a mineralization depth of 8.7–6.5 km. Previous exploration projects have revealed that the gold ore bodies are all hydrothermal quartz-sulfide veins filled in faults, and there is no direct contact relationship with the surrounding skarn and hornstone alteration zones. Although ore bodies are mostly located within the intrusive stock, they also extend into the surrounding slate. In addition, the boundaries between the ore bodies and wall rock are clear. Combined with fluid inclusion characteristics, the Sanakhamgold deposit is similar to the Phapon gold deposit and is suggested to be an orogenic gold deposit.

4. Paleo-Tethys Au-Cu Mineralization in the Luang Prabang–Loei Metallogenic Belt

The Luang Prabang–Loei metallogenic belt underwent multi-stages of tectonic-magmatic activities during the late Ordovician-late Triassic period, including the accretion and collage of the Proto- and Paleo-Tethys oceanic plate, and continental collision and orogeny. Among them, the Proto-Tethys stage and tectonic-magmatic activities during the late Ordovician-early Silurian period are not observed to be related to regional mineralization yet. However, three stages of Au-Cu mineralization related to Paleo-Tethys activities during the late Permian-late Triassic period are recognized in the belt (Figure 8):

4.1. Late Permian–Early Triassic Subduction Period

This period mainly lasted from 260 to 250 Ma. Driven by eastward subduction of the main Paleo-Tethys oceanic slab, the Sukhothai Terrane, Nam-Uttaradit back-arc basin, Simao Terrane, and Luang Prabang–Loei back-arc basin moved and subducted towards the Indochina Block in sequence. A set of intermediate-basic volcanic breccia and volcanic-sedimentary rocks occurred in the west margin of the Indochina Block and synchronously developed epithermal Chatree and LD Prospect Au-Ag deposits (Figure 8A). The magmatic fluids upwelled along the regional tensile fault and became locally trapped by the relatively dense pyroxene breccia at the upper layer. The fluids moved laterally in the relatively permeable breccia at the bottom, mixed with infiltrating meteoric water, and formed the initial ore-forming fluids. During fault activities, fluids underwent boiling and CO2 and H2S were lost, resulting in changes in physical and chemical conditions, and the dissociation of the disulfide complexes of gold and silver led to the rapid precipitation of metals.

4.2. Early–Middle Triassic Closure Period

This period mainly lasted from 250 to 240 Ma. The Paleo-Tethys oceanic slab continued to subduct eastward beneath the Indochina Block, resulting in a gradually closed Luang Prabang–Loei back-arc basin. During this period, intermediate-acidic intrusive rocks and volcanic rocks breccia developed to be widespread in the belt, accompanied by a large amount of porphyry-skarn Cu-Au mineralization represented by Pangkuam and Phu Lon (Figure 8B). The initial Cu- and Au-rich ore-forming fluids originated from mantle magma dissolution (e.g., [69,70,71]), which upwelled along fracture systems and underwent contact and metasomatism with carbonate or clastic rocks, resulting in large-scale alteration such as skarnization or hornfelization, potassium mineralization, and propylitization. Multi-stages of fluid boiling, degassing, and degradation alteration occurred during the mineralization process. The ore-forming fluids gradually evolved from high-temperature, low-salinity, and CO2-rich fluids, to medium- to low-temperature, medium- to high-salinity, and CO2-poor fluids, accompanied by gold and copper precipitation.

4.3. Late Triassic Continental Collision Period

This period mainly lasted from 235 to 220 Ma. The Paleo-Tethys Ocean closed gradually, leading to a subsequent continental–continental collision between the Sibumasu Block and the Indochina Block. Deep and large faults and intense magmatic activities, as a result, developed along the tectonic boundaries, accompanied by orogenic Phapon and Sanakham gold deposits (Figure 8C; e.g., [72,73]). Intense collision and compression led to dynamic metamorphism, which may have caused dehydration and decarbonization of the original oceanic plates, forming the initial low temperature, medium-low salinity, and CO2-rich auriferous ore-forming fluids. Regional magmatic activities have no genetic relation with gold mineralization but provide a heat source for fluid-circulation driving. The fluids migrated along the tensile fracture and underwent a fluid-rock reaction with the wall rocks. Multi-stage opening and closing of the ore-controlling fractures caused pressure fluctuations, leading to fluid immiscibility/boiling. Both the fluid–rock reaction and fluid immiscibility caused the instability of gold complexes in the fluids, leading to gold precipitation and mineralization.

5. Conclusions

A. The Luang Prabang–Loei metallogenetic belt experienced three tectonic-magmatic activity periods: (1) Carboniferous-middle Permian, back-arc basin driven by initial subduction of the Paleo-Tethys oceanic plate; (2) late Permian-middle Triassic, continuous subduction and closure of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean; and (3) late Triassic, collision between the Sibumasu Block and Indochina Block. Among them, the latter two periods form the main gold and copper mineralization episode.
B. Based on characteristics of the regional geological setting, ore-controlling structure, and gold occurrence, combined with new data on the source and evolution of ore-forming fluids, the gold deposits with hydrothermal calcite/quartz veins as the main ore bodies, represented by Phapon and Sanakham, are classified as orogenic gold deposits. Thus, there are three main gold (-copper) metallogenetic series in the Luang Prabang–Loei belt: (1) Porphyry-skarn gold–copper deposits, (2) epithermal gold–silver deposits, and (3) orogenic gold deposits.
C. The gold and copper mineralization in the belt is related to the subduction and closure of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, followed by continental collision during the late Permian-late Triassic period. Epithermal gold deposits are related to volcanic activities caused by the eastward subduction of the late Permian-early Triassic Paleo-Tethys oceanic plate. Porphyry-skarn deposits are related to early–middle Triassic intermediate-felsic intrusive rocks. Orogenic gold deposits are related to deep faults and magmatic activity that occurred along the tectonic boundary during the late Triassic continental–continental collision between the Sibumasu Block and the Indochina Block.
This study provides a comprehensive and up-to-date overview of the tectonic-magmatic, geochronological, and metallogenic processes characterizing the Luang Prabang–Loei metallogenic belt. Additional geochemical and geochronological data on magmatic rocks and gold–copper deposits are required to better understand the connection between magmatic activity and the belt’s mineralization potential.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.G., K.Z. and S.L.; data curation, L.G. and Y.Y.; formal analysis, L.G., K.Z. and C.H.; funding acquisition, L.G. and K.Z.; investigation, L.G., Y.Y., F.N., X.Z. (Xiangfei Zhang), H.L., X.Z. (Xiangting Zeng) and S.X.; methodology, F.N., C.H., M.S. and S.W.; project administration, L.G., S.L. and Y.Y.; resources, K.Z., M.S. and S.W.; writing—original draft, L.G. and K.Z.; writing—review and editing, L.G., K.Z., S.L. and Y.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 42472142, 42102113), the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant No. 2021YFC2901803), the International Geoscience Program (IGCP-741), the China Geological Survey Project (Grant No. DD20230579, DD20230127), and the China Scholarship Council (File No. 202108575008).

Data Availability Statement

The data are available upon request.

Acknowledgments

This is a translation/reprint of reference [5]. This translation, together with some new data obtained in the last two years, was prepared by Linnan Guo and Khin Zaw. Permission was granted by Sedimentary Geology and Tethyan Geology and all authors from the original publication. The authors are highly indebted to editors and anonymous reviewers for their insightful and helpful comments to improve the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 2. Paleo-Tethys evolution stages and major Cu-Au deposits of the Luang Prabang–Loei metallogenic belt.
Figure 2. Paleo-Tethys evolution stages and major Cu-Au deposits of the Luang Prabang–Loei metallogenic belt.
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Figure 3. Geological map of Pangkuam gold–copper deposit (modified after [3]). The red arrows beside the faults show the direction of the strike-slip fault.
Figure 3. Geological map of Pangkuam gold–copper deposit (modified after [3]). The red arrows beside the faults show the direction of the strike-slip fault.
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Figure 4. Geological map of Phu Lon copper–gold deposit (modified after [40]). The red arrows beside the faults show the direction of the strike-slip fault.
Figure 4. Geological map of Phu Lon copper–gold deposit (modified after [40]). The red arrows beside the faults show the direction of the strike-slip fault.
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Figure 5. Geological map of Chatree gold–silver deposit (modified after [22]). The red arrows beside the faults show the direction of the strike-slip fault.
Figure 5. Geological map of Chatree gold–silver deposit (modified after [22]). The red arrows beside the faults show the direction of the strike-slip fault.
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Figure 6. Geological map of Phapon gold deposit (modified after [26]). The red arrows beside the faults show the direction of the strike-slip fault.
Figure 6. Geological map of Phapon gold deposit (modified after [26]). The red arrows beside the faults show the direction of the strike-slip fault.
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Figure 7. Geological map of Sanakham gold deposit (modified after [4]). The red arrows beside the faults show the direction of the strike-slip fault.
Figure 7. Geological map of Sanakham gold deposit (modified after [4]). The red arrows beside the faults show the direction of the strike-slip fault.
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Figure 8. Paleo-Tethys tectonic-magmatic evolution and gold–copper mineralization model of the Luang Prabang–Loei metallogenic belt.
Figure 8. Paleo-Tethys tectonic-magmatic evolution and gold–copper mineralization model of the Luang Prabang–Loei metallogenic belt.
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Guo, L.; Zaw, K.; Liu, S.; Yang, Y.; Nie, F.; Wu, S.; Shi, M.; Huang, C.; Zhang, X.; Liang, H.; et al. A Review of Carboniferous-Triassic Tectonic-Magmatic Evolution of Luang Prabang–Loei Metallogenic Belt in Laos and Thailand and Implications for Gold–Copper Mineralization. Geosciences 2025, 15, 68. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15020068

AMA Style

Guo L, Zaw K, Liu S, Yang Y, Nie F, Wu S, Shi M, Huang C, Zhang X, Liang H, et al. A Review of Carboniferous-Triassic Tectonic-Magmatic Evolution of Luang Prabang–Loei Metallogenic Belt in Laos and Thailand and Implications for Gold–Copper Mineralization. Geosciences. 2025; 15(2):68. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15020068

Chicago/Turabian Style

Guo, Linnan, Khin Zaw, Shusheng Liu, Yongfei Yang, Fei Nie, Songyang Wu, Meifeng Shi, Chunmei Huang, Xiangfei Zhang, Huimin Liang, and et al. 2025. "A Review of Carboniferous-Triassic Tectonic-Magmatic Evolution of Luang Prabang–Loei Metallogenic Belt in Laos and Thailand and Implications for Gold–Copper Mineralization" Geosciences 15, no. 2: 68. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15020068

APA Style

Guo, L., Zaw, K., Liu, S., Yang, Y., Nie, F., Wu, S., Shi, M., Huang, C., Zhang, X., Liang, H., Zeng, X., & Xu, S. (2025). A Review of Carboniferous-Triassic Tectonic-Magmatic Evolution of Luang Prabang–Loei Metallogenic Belt in Laos and Thailand and Implications for Gold–Copper Mineralization. Geosciences, 15(2), 68. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences15020068

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