Lithosphere–Atmosphere–Ionosphere Coupling Effects Based on Multiparameter Precursor Observations for February–March 2021 Earthquakes (M~7) in the Offshore of Tohoku Area of Japan
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Two EQs Used in This Paper
3. Multiparameter Observational Data and Analysis Methodology
3.1. ULF/ELF Data
3.2. Analysis Methodology of ULF Data
3.2.1. Lithospheric ULF Radiation
3.2.2. ULF Magnetic Field Depression
3.3. Analysis Method of ULF/ELF Electromagnetic Radiation
3.3.1. Direction Finding
3.3.2. Detection of the Radiation
3.4. AGW Activity Data
3.5. Subionospheric VLF/LF Propagation Data and Analysis
3.6. GIM TEC Data
4. Observational Results
4.1. ULF Magnetic Field (Lithospheric Radiation, ULF Depression)
4.2. ULF/ELF Atmospheric Radiation
4.2.1. ULF/ELF Radiation Detection
4.2.2. ULF/ELF Radiation Source Azimuth
4.3. Observational Results on AGW Activity
4.4. Subionospheric VLF/LF Propagation Anomalies (Lower Ionospheric Perturbations)
4.5. Observational Result on TEC Ionospheric Perturbations
5. Summary and Discussion
5.1. Lithospheric Effects
5.2. Atmospheric Effects
5.3. Stratospheric Effects
5.4. Lower Ionospheric Perturbations
5.5. Upper Ionospheric Effects
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Hayakawa, M. Earthquake Prediction with Radio Techniques; John Wiley and Sons: Singapore, 2015; 294p. [Google Scholar]
- Kopytenko, Y.A.; Matiashvily, T.G.; Voronov, P.M.; Kopytenko, E.A.; Molchanov, O.A. Detection of ULF emissions connected with the Spitak earthquake and its aftershock activity based on geomagnetic pulsations data at Dusheti and Vardziya observatories. Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. 1990, 77, 85–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Molchanov, O.A.; Kopytenko, Y.A.; Voronov, P.M.; Kopytenko, E.A.; Matiashvily, T.G.; Fraser-Smith, A.C.; Bernardi, A. Results of ULF magnetic field measurements near the epicenters of the Spitac (Ms = 6.9) and Loma Prieta (Ms = 7.1) earthquakes: Comparative analysis. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1992, 19, 1495–1498. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fraser-Smith, A.C.; Bernardi, A.; McGill, P.R.; Ladd, M.E.; Helliwell, R.A.; Villard, O.G., Jr. Low-frequency magnetic field measurements near the epicenter of the Ms 7.1 Loma Prieta earthquake. J. Geophys. Res. 1990, 17, 1465–1468. [Google Scholar]
- Hayakawa, M.; Kawate, R.; Molchanov, O.A.; Yumoto, K. Results of ultra-low-frequency magnetic field measurements during the Guam earthquake of 8 August 1993. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1996, 23, 241–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hayakawa, M.; Molchanov, O.A.; Ondoh, T.; Kawai, E. The precursory signature effect of the Kobe earthquake on VLF subionospheric signals. J. Comm. Res. Lab. 1996, 43, 169–180. [Google Scholar]
- Pulinets, S.A.; Boyarchuk, K. Ionospheric Precursors of Earthquakes; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2004; 315p. [Google Scholar]
- Molchanov, O.A.; Hayakawa, M. Seismo Electromagnetics and Related Phenomena: History and Latest Results; TERRAPUB: Tokyo, Japan, 2008; 189p. [Google Scholar]
- Surkov, V.; Hayakawa, M. Ultra and Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields; Springer: Tokyo, Japan, 2014; 486p. [Google Scholar]
- Sorokin, V.V.; Chmyrev, V.; Hayakawa, M. Electrodynamic Coupling of Lithosphere-Atmosphere-Ionosphere of the Earth; NOVA Science Pub. Inc.: New York, NY, USA, 2015; 355p. [Google Scholar]
- Ouzounov, D.; Pulinets, S.; Hattori, K.; Taylor, P. (Eds.) Pre-Earthquake Processes: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Earthquake Prediction Studies; AGU Geophysical Monograph 234; Wiley: New York, NY, USA, 2018; 365p. [Google Scholar]
- Varotsos, P.A. The Physics of Seismic Electric Signals; Terrapub: Tokyo, Japan, 2015; 388p. [Google Scholar]
- Han, P.; Hattori, K.; Hirokawa, M.; Zhuang, J.; Chen, C.H.; Febriani, F.; Yamaguchi, H.; Yoshino, C.; Liu, J.Y.; Yoshida, S. Statistical analysis of ULF seismomagnetic phenomena at Kakioka, Japan, during 2001–2010. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 2014, 119, 4998–5011. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ouzounov, D.; Pulinets, S.; Kafatos, M.C.; Taylor, P. Thermal radiation anomalies associated with major earthquakes. In Pre-Earthquakes Processes: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Earthquake Prediction Studies; AGU, Monograph; Ouzounov, D., Pulinets, S., Kafatos, M.C., Taylor, P., Eds.; Wiley: New York, NY, USA, 2018; pp. 259–277. [Google Scholar]
- Genzano, N.; Filizzaola, C.; Hattori, K.; Pergola, N.; Tramutoli, V. Statistical correlation analysis between thermal infrared anomalies observed from MTSATs and large earthquakes occurred in Japan (2005–2015). J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 2021, 126, e2020JB020108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hayakawa, M.; Kasahara, Y.; Nakamura, T.; Muto, F.; Horie, T.; Maekawa, S.; Hobara, Y.; Rozhnoi, A.A.; Solovieva, M.; Molchanov, O.A. A statistical study on the correlation between lower ionospheric perturbations as seen by subionospheric VLF/LF propagation and earthquakes. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115, A09305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Molchanov, O.A.; Hayakawa, M. Subionospheric VLF signal perturbations possibly related to earthquakes. J. Geophys. Res. 1998, 103, 17489–17504. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Biagi, P.F.; Ermini, A. Geochemical and VLF-LF radio precursors of strong earthquakes. In Earthquake Prediction Studies: Seismo Electromagnetics; Hayakawa, M., Ed.; TERRAPUB: Tokyo, Japan, 2013; pp. 153–168. [Google Scholar]
- Liu, J.Y.; Chen, Y.I.; Chuo, Y.J.; Chen, C.S. A statistical investigation of pre-earthquake ionospheric anomaly. J. Geophys. Res. 2006, 111, A05304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Le, H.; Liu, J.Y.; Liu, L. A statistical analysis of ionospheric anomalies before 736 M6.0+ earthquakes during 2002–2010. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 2011, 116, A02303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rozhnoi, A.; Solovieva, M.; Molchanov, O.A.; Hayakawa, M. Middle latitude LF (40 kHz) phase variations associated with earthquakes for quiet and disturbed geomagnetic conditions. Phys. Chem. Earth 2004, 29, 589–598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rozhnoi, A.; Solovieva, M.; Hayakawa, M. VLF/LF signals method for searching for electromagnetic earthquake precursors. In Earthquake Prediction Studies: Seismo Electromagnetics; Hayakawa, M., Ed.; TERRAPUB: Tokyo, Japan, 2013; pp. 31–48. ISBN 978-4-88704-163-9. [Google Scholar]
- Maekawa, S.; Horie, T.; Yamauchi, T.; Sawaya, T.; Ishikawa, M.; Hayakawa, M.; Sasaki, H. A statistical study on the effect of earthquakes on the ionosphere, as based on the subionospheric LF of propagation data in Japan. Ann. Geophys. 2006, 24, 2219–2225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chakhrabarti, S.K. (Ed.) Propagation Effects of Very Low Frequency Radio Waves; American Institute of Physics Conference Series; American Institute of Physics: College Park, MD, USA, 2010; Volume 1286. [Google Scholar]
- Ray, S.; Chakrabarti, S.K.; Mondal, S.M.; Sasmal, S. Ionospheric anomaly due to seismic activities III: Correlation between nighttime VLF amplitude fluctuations and effective magnitudes in Indian sub-continent. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 2011, 11, 2699–2704. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Liu, J.Y.; Chen, C.H.; Tsai, H.F. A statistical study on seismo-ionospheric precursors of the total electron content associated with 146 M 6.0 earthquakes. In Earthquake Prediction Studies: Seismo Electromagnetics; Hayakawa, M., Ed.; TERRAPUB: Tokyo, Japan, 2013; pp. 1–13. [Google Scholar]
- Kon, S.; Nishihashi, M.; Hattori, K. Ionospheric anomalies possibly associated with M 6 earthquakes in Japan during 1998–2011: Case studies and statistical study. J. Asian Earth Sci. 2011, 41, 410–420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Parrot, M.; Li, M. Statistical analysis of the ionospheric density recorded by the satellite during seismic activity. In Pre-Earthquake Processes: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Earthquake Prediction Studies; AGU Monograph; Ouzounov, D., Pulinets, S., Kafatos, M.C., Taylor, P., Eds.; Wiley: New York, NY, USA, 2018; pp. 319–328. [Google Scholar]
- Pulinets, S.; Ouzounov, D. Lithosphere-atmosphere-ionosphere coupling (LAIC) model—A unified concept for earthquake precursors validation. J. Asian Earth Sci. 2011, 41, 371–382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hayakawa, M.; Asano, T.; Rozhnoi, A.; Solovieva, M. Very-low and low-frequency sounding of ionospheric perturbations and possible association with earthquakes. In Pre-Earthquake Processes: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Earthquake Prediction Studies; AGU, Monograph; Ouzounov, D., Pulinets, S., Kafatos, M.C., Taylor, P., Eds.; Wiley: New York, NY, USA, 2018; pp. 277–304. [Google Scholar]
- Molchanov, O.; Fedorov, E.; Schekotov, A.; Gordeev, E.; Chebrov, V.; Surkov, V.; Rozhnoi, A.; Andreevsky, S.; Iudin, D.; Yunga, S.; et al. Lithosphere-atmosphere-ionosphere coupling as governing mechanism for preseismic short-term events in atmosphere and ionosphere. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 2004, 4, 757–767. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hayakawa, M.; Molchanov, O.A. NASDA/UEC team Summary report of NASADA Frontier Project. Phys. Chem. Earth 2004, 29, 617–625. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Santis, A.; Abbattista, C.; Alfonsi, L.; Amoruso, L.; Campuzano, S.A.; Carbone, M.; Cesaroni, C.; Cianchini, G.; Di Giovambattista, R.; Marchetti, D.; et al. Geosystems view of earthquakes. Entropy 2019, 21, 412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sorokin, V.M.; Chmyrev, V.M.; Hayakawa, M. A review on electrodynamic influence of atmospheric processes to the ionosphere. Open J. Earthq. Res. 2020, 9, 113–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Freund, F.T. Earthquake forewarning—A multidisciplinary challenge from the ground up to space. Acta Geophys. 2013, 61, 775–807. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Akhoondzadeh, M.; De Santis, A.; Marchetti, D.; Piscini, A.; Cianchini, G. Multi precursors associated with the powerful Ecuador (Mw = 7.8) earthquake of 16 April 2016 using Swarm satellites data in conjunction with other multi-platform satellite and ground data. Adv. Space Res. 2018, 61, 248–263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sasmal, S.; Chowdhury, S.; Kundu, S.; Politis, D.Z.; Potirakis, S.M.; Balasis, G.; Hayakawa, M.; Chakrabarti, S.K. Pre-seismic irregularities during the 2020 Samos (Greece) earthquake (M = 6.9) as investigated from multi-parameter approach by ground and space-based techniques. Atmosphere 2021, 12, 1059. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Heki, K. Ionospheric electron enhancement preceding the 2011 Tohoku-oki earthquake. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2011, 38, L17312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hayakawa, M.; Ito, T.; Smirnova, N. Fractal analysis of the ULF geomagnetic data associated with Guam earthquake on August 8, 1993. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1999, 26, 2797–2800. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ida, Y.; Hayakawa, M. Fractal analysis for the ULF data during the 1993 Guam earthquake to study prefracture criticality. Nonlinear Prcoesses Geophys. 2004, 13, 409–412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Eftaxias, K.; Potirakis, S.M.; Contoyiannis, Y. Four-stage model of earthquake generation in terms of fracture-induced electromagnetic emission: A review. In Complexity of Seismic Time Series; Chelidze, T., Vallianatos, F., Telesca, L., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2018; pp. 437–502. [Google Scholar]
- Varotsos, P.; Sarlis, N.; Skordas, E.S. Phenomena preceding major earthquakes interconnected through physical model. Ann. Geophys. 2019, 37, 315–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Potirakis, S.M.; Contoyiannis, Y.; Koulouras, G.; Nomicos, C. Recent field observations indicating an earth system in critical condition before the occurrence of a significant earthquake. IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett. 2015, 12, 631–635. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Potirakis, S.M.; Schekotov, A.; Asano, T.; Hayakawa, M. Natural time analysis on the ultra-low frequency magnetic field variations prior to the 2016 Kumamoto (Japan) earthquakes. J. Asian Earth Sci. 2018, 154, 419–427. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Potirakis, S.M.; Contoyiannis, Y.; Schekotov, A.; Eftaxias, K.; Hayakawa, M. Evidence of critical dynamics in various electromagnetic precursors. Eur. Phys. J. Spec. Top. 2021, 230, 151–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liperovsky, V.A.; Meister, C.V.; Liperovskaya, E.V.; Bogdanov, V.V. On the generation of electric field and infrared radiation in aerosol clouds due to radon emanation in the atmosphere before earthquakes. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 2008, 8, 1199–1205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sorokin, V.; Hayakawa, M. Plasma and electromagnetic effects caused by the seismic-related disturbances of electric current in the global circuit. Mod. Appl. Sci. 2014, 8, 61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Oyama, K.-I.; Devi, M.; Ryu, K.; Chen, C.H.; Liu, J.Y.; Liu, H.; Bankov, L.; Kodama, T. Modifications of the ionosphere prior to large earthquakes: Report from the Ionosphere Precursors Study Group. Geosci. Lett. 2016, 36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sorokin, V.M.; Yaschenko, A.K.; Chmyrev, V.M.; Hayakawa, M. DC electric field formation in the mid-latitude ionosphere over typhoon and earthquake regions. Phys. Chem. Earth 2006, 31, 454–461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hayakawa, M.; Kasahara, Y.; Nakamura, T.; Hobara, Y.; Rozhnoi, A.; Solovieva, M.; Molchanov, O.A.; Korepanov, K. Atmospheric gravity waves as a possible candidate for seismo-ionospheric perturbations. J. Atmos. Electr. 2011, 31, 129–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Korepanov, V.; Hayakawa, M.; Yampolski, Y.; Lizunov, G. AGW as a seismo-ionospheric coupling responsible agent. Phys. Chem. Earth 2009, 34, 485–495. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lizunov, G.; Skorokhod, T.; Hayakawa, M.; Korepanov, V. Formation of ionospheric precursors of earthquakes—Probable mechanism and its substantiation. Open J. Earthq. Res. 2020, 9, 142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yang, S.S.; Asano, T.; Hayakawa, M. Abnormal gravity wave activity in the stratosphere prior to the 2016 Kumamoto earthquakes. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 2019, 124, 1410–1425. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, S.S.; Hayakawa, M. Gravity wave activity in the stratosphere before the 2011 Tohoku earthquake as the mechanism of lithosphere-atmosphere-ionosphere coupling. Entropy 2020, 22, 110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yang, S.S.; Potirakis, S.M.; Sasmal, S.; Hayakawa, M. Natural time analysis of Global Navigation Satellite System surface deformation: The case of the 2016 Kumamoto earthquakes. Entropy 2020, 22, 674. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Piersanti, M.; Marterassi, M.; Battiston, R.; Carbone, V.; Cicone, C.; D’Angelo, G.; Diego, P.; Ubertini, P. Magnetospheric-ionospheric-lithospheric coupling model. 1: Observations during the 5 August 2018 Bayan earthquake. Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 3299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carbone, V.; Piersanti, M.; Materassi, M.; Battison, R.; Lipreti, F.; Ubertini, P. A mathematical model of lithosphere-atmosphere-ionosphere coupling for seismic events. Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 868. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Galper, A.M.; Dimitrenko, V.B.; Nikitina, N.V.; Grachev, V.M.; Ulin, S.E. Interrelation between high-energy charged particle fluxes in the radiation belt and seismicity of the Earth. Cosm. Res. 1989, 27, 789. [Google Scholar]
- Galperin, Y.I.; Gladyshev, V.A.; Jordjio, N.V.; Larkina, V.I. Precipitation of high-energy captured particles in the magnetosphere above the epicenter of an incipient earthquake. Cosm. Res. 1992, 30, 89–106. [Google Scholar]
- Sgrigna, V.; Carota, L.; Conti, M.; Galper, A.M.; Koldashov, S.V.; Murashov, A.M.; Picozza, P.; Scrimaglio, R.; Stangi, L. Correlations between earthquakes and anomalous particle bursts from SAMPEX/PET satellite observations. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 2005, 67, 1448–1462. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fidani, C.; Battiston, R.; Burger, W.J. A study of the correlation between earthquakes and NOAA satellite energetic particle bursts. Remote Sens. 2010, 9, 2170–2182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Freund, F.; Ouillon, G.; Scoville, J.; Sornett, D. Earthquake precursors in the light of peroxy defects theory: Critical review of systematic observations. Eur. Phys. J. Spec. Top. 2021, 230, 7–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Molchanov, O.A.; Hayakawa, M.; Miyaki, K. VLF/LF sounding of the lower ionosphere to study the role of atmospheric oscillations in the lithosphere-ionosphere coupling. Adv. Polar Up. Atmos. Res. 2001, 15, 146–158. [Google Scholar]
- Miyaki, K.; Hayakawa, M.; Molchanov, O.A. The role of gravity waves in the lithosphere-ionosphere coupling as revealed from the subionospheric LF propagation data. In Seismo Electromagnetics: Lithosphere-Atmosphere-Ionosphere Coupling; Hayakawa, M., Molchanov, O.A., Eds.; TERRAPUB: Tokyo, Japan, 2002; pp. 229–232. [Google Scholar]
- Shvets, A.V.; Hayakawa, M.; Molchanov, O.A.; Ando, Y. A study of ionospheric response to regional seismic activity by VLF radio sounding. Phys. Chem. Earth 2004, 29, 627–637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sasmal, S.; Chakhrabarti, S.K.; Ray, S. Unusual behavior of Very Low Frequency signal during the earthquake at Honshu/Japan. Indian J. Phys. 2014, 88, 1013–1019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rozhnoi, A.A.; Solovieva, M.; Molchanov, O.; Biagi, P.F.; Hayakawa, M. Observational evidence of atmospheric gravity waves induced by seismic activity from analysis of subionospheric LF signal spectra. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 2007, 7, 625–628. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dobrovolsky, I.R.; Zubrov, S.I.; Myachkin, V.I. Estimation of the size of earthquake preparation zone. Pure Appl. Geophys. 1979, 117, 1025–1044. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ruzhin, Y.Y.; Depueva, A.K. Seismoprecursors in space as plasma and wave anomalies. J. Atmos. Electr. 1996, 16, 271–288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ohta, K.; Izutsu, J.; Schekotov, A.; Hayakawa, M. The ULF/ELF electromagnetic radiation before the 11 March 2011 Japanese earthquake. Radio Sci. 2013, 48, 589–596. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hattori, K. ULF geomagnetic changes associated with large earthquakes. Terr. Atmos. Ocean. Sci. 2004, 15, 329–360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hayakawa, M.; Hattori, K.; Ohta, K. Monitoring of ULF (ultra-low-frequency) geomagnetic variations associated with earthquakes. Sensors 2007, 7, 1108–1122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Currie, J.L.; Waters, C.L. On the use of geomagnetic indices and ULF waves for earthquake precursor signatures. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 2014, 119, 992–1003. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yusof, K.A.; Abdullay, M.; Hamid, N.S.A.; Ahadi, S.; Yoshikawa, A. Correlations between earthquake properties and characteristics of possible ULF geomagnetic precursors over multiple earthquakes. Universe 2021, 7, 20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Molchanov, O.A.; Schekotov, A.Y.; Fedorov, E.N.; Belyaev, G.G.; Gordeev, E.E. Preseismic ULF electromagnetic effect from observation at Kamchatka. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 2003, 3, 203–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Molchanov, O.A.; Schekotov, A.Y.; Fedorov, E.; Belyaev, G.G.; Gordeev, E.E. Preseismic ULF electromagnetic effect and possible interpretation. Ann. Geophys. 2004, 47, 119–131. [Google Scholar]
- Schekotov, A.; Molchanov, O.; Hattori, K.; Fedorov, E.; Gladyshev, V.A.; Belyaev, G.G.; Chebrov, V.; Sinitsin, V.; Gordeev, E.; Hayakawa, M. Seismo-ionospheric depression of the ULF geomagnetic fluctuations at Kamchatka and Japan. Phys. Chem. Earth 2006, 31, 313–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schekotov, A.Y.; Molchanov, O.A.; Hayakawa, M.; Fedorov, E.N.; Chebrov, V.N.; Sinitsin, V.I.; Gordeev, E.F.; Belyaev, G.G.; Yagova, N.V. ULF/ELF magnetic field variation from atmosphere by seismicity. Radio Sci. 2007, 42, RS6S90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hayakawa, M.; Schekotov, A.; Fedorov, E.; Hobara, Y. On the ultra-low-frequency magnetic field depression for three huge oceanic earthquakes in Japan and in the Kurile islands. Earth Sci. Res. 2013, 2, 33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Schekotov, A.; Chebrov, D.; Hayakawa, M.; Belyaev, G. Estimation of the epicenter position of. Kamchatka earthquakes. Pure Appl. Geophys. 2021, 178, 813–821. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fidani, C.; Orsini, M.; Iezzi, G.; Vicentini, N.; Stoppa, F. Electric and magnetic recordings by Chieti CIEN station during the intense 2016–2017 seismic swarms in central Italy. Front. Earth Sci. 2020, 8, 451. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schekotov, A.; Fedorov, E.; Molchanov, O.A.; Hayakawa, M. Low frequency electromagnetic precursors as a prospect for earthquake prediction. In Earthquake Prediction Studies: Seismo Electromagnetics; Hayakawa, M., Ed.; TERRAP: Tokyo, Japan, 2013; pp. 81–99. [Google Scholar]
- Hayakawa, M.; Schekotov, A.; Izutsu, J.; Nickolaenko, A.P. Seismogenic effects in ULF/ELF/VLF electromagnetic waves. Int. J. Electron. Appl. Res. 2019, 6, 1–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fowler, R.A.; Kotick, B.J.; Elliot, R.D. Polarization analysis of natural and artificially induced geomagnetic micropulsations. J. Geophys. Res. 1967, 72, 2871–2875. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Herbach, H.; Bell, B.; Berrisford, P.; Hirahara, S.; Horanyi, A.; Munoz-Sabataer, J.; Nicolas, J.; Peubey, C.; Radu, R.; Schepers, D.; et al. The ERA5 global reanalysis. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 2020, 146, 1999–2049. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kikuchi, T.; Evans, D.S. Quantitative study of substorm-associated VLF phase anomalies and precipitating energetic electrons on November 13, 1979. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 1983, 88, 871–880. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peter, W.B.; Chevalier, M.W.; Inan, U.S. Perturbations of midlatitude subionospheric VLF signals associated with lower ionospheric disturbances during major geomagnetic storms. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 2006, 111, A3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rozhnoi, A.; Molchanov, O.; Solovieva, M.; Gladyshev, V.; Akentieva, O.; Berthelier, J.J.; Parrot, M.; Lefeuvre, F.; Hayakawa, M.; Castellana, L.; et al. Possible seismo-ionosphere perturbations revealed by VLF signals collected on ground and on a satellite. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 2007, 7, 617–624. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Schaer, S. Mapping and Predicting the Earth’s Ionosphere Using the Global Positioning System. Ph.D. Thesis, Astronomical Institute, University of Berne, Berne, Switzerland, 1999. [Google Scholar]
- Hayakawa, M.; Schekotov, A.; Potirakis, S.M.; Eftaxias, K. Criticality features in ULF magnetic fields prior to the 2011 Tohoku earthquake. Proc. Jpn. Acad. Ser. B 2015, 91, 25–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Molchanov, M.; Hayakawa, M. Generation of ULF electromagnetic emissions by microfracturing. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1995, 22, 3091–3094. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tzanis, A.; Vallianatos, F. A physical model of electric earthquake precursors due to crack propagation and the motion of charged edge dislocations. In Seismo Electromagnetics: Lithosphere-Atmosphere-Ionosphere Coupling; Hayakawa, M., Molchanov, O.A., Eds.; TERRAPUB: Tokyo, Japan, 2002; pp. 117–130. [Google Scholar]
- Schekotov, A.; Izutsu, J.; Asano, T.; Potirakis, S.M.; Hayakawa, M. Electromagnetic precursors to the 2016 Kumamoto earthquakes. Open J. Earthq. Res. 2017, 6, 168–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Schekotov, A.; Chebrov, D.; Hayakawa, M.; Belyaev, G.; Berseneva, N. Short-term earthquake prediction at Kamchatka using low-frequency magnetic field. Nat. Hazards 2020, 100, 735–755. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blanchard, D.C. The electrification of the atmosphere by particles from bubbles in the sea. Prog. Oceanogr. 1963, 1, 73–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Enomoto, Y.; Heki, K.; Yamabe, Y.; Sugiura, S.; Kondo, H. A possible casual mechanism of geomagnetic variations as observed immediately before and after the 2011 Tohoku-oki earthquake. Open J. Earthq. Res. 2020, 9, 33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hayakawa, M.; Rozhnoi, A.; Solovieva, M.; Hobara, Y.; Ohta, K.; Schekotov, A.; Fedorov, E. The lower ionospheric perturbation as a precursor to the 11 March 2011 Japan earthquake. Geomat. Nat. Hazards Risk 2013, 4, 275–287. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kamiyama, M.; Sugito, M.; Kuse, M.; Schekotov, A.; Hayakawa, M. On the precursors to the 2011 Tohoku earthquake: Crustal movements and electromagnetic signatures. Geomat. Nat. Hazards Risk 2014, 7, 471–492. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chen, C.H.; Lin, L.C.; Yeh, T.K.; Wen, S.; Yu, H.; Yu, C.; Gao, Y.; Han, P.; Sun, Y.Y.; Liu, J.Y.; et al. Determination of epicenters before earthquakes utilizing far seismic and GNSS data: Insights from ground vibrations. Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 3252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, C.H.; Sun, Y.Y.; Wen, S.; Han, P.; Lin, L.C.; Yu, H.; Zhang, X.; Gao, Y.; Tang, C.C.; Lin, C.H.; et al. Spatiotemporal changes of seismicity rate during earthquakes. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 2020, 20, 3333–3341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bedford, J.R.; Moreno, M.; Deng, Z.; Oncken, O.; Schurr, B.; John, T.; Baez, T.C.; Bevis, M. Months-long thousand-kilometre-scale wobbling before great subduction earthquakes. Nature 2020, 580, 628–639. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hayakawa, M.; Izutsu, J.; Schekotov, A.; Galuk, Y.P.; Nickolaenko, A.P.; Kudintseva, I.G. Anomalies of Schumann resonances as observed near Nagoya associated with the huge (M~7) Tohoku offshore earthquakes in 2021. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 2021, 225, 105761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marchitelli, V.; Harabaglia, P.; Troise, C.; De Natale, G. On the correlation between solar activity and large earthquakes worldwide. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 11495. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Anagnostopoulos, G.; Spyroglou, I.; Rigas, L.A.; Preka-Papadama, P.; Mavromichalaki, H.; Kiosses, I. The sun as a significant agent provoking earthquakes. Eur. Phys. J. Spec. Top. 2021, 230, 287–333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Hayakawa, M.; Izutsu, J.; Schekotov, A.; Yang, S.-S.; Solovieva, M.; Budilova, E. Lithosphere–Atmosphere–Ionosphere Coupling Effects Based on Multiparameter Precursor Observations for February–March 2021 Earthquakes (M~7) in the Offshore of Tohoku Area of Japan. Geosciences 2021, 11, 481. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11110481
Hayakawa M, Izutsu J, Schekotov A, Yang S-S, Solovieva M, Budilova E. Lithosphere–Atmosphere–Ionosphere Coupling Effects Based on Multiparameter Precursor Observations for February–March 2021 Earthquakes (M~7) in the Offshore of Tohoku Area of Japan. Geosciences. 2021; 11(11):481. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11110481
Chicago/Turabian StyleHayakawa, Masashi, Jun Izutsu, Alexander Schekotov, Shih-Sian Yang, Maria Solovieva, and Ekaterina Budilova. 2021. "Lithosphere–Atmosphere–Ionosphere Coupling Effects Based on Multiparameter Precursor Observations for February–March 2021 Earthquakes (M~7) in the Offshore of Tohoku Area of Japan" Geosciences 11, no. 11: 481. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11110481