Knowledge Gaps on the Utilization of Fossil Shell Flour in Beef Production: A Review
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Fossil Shell Flour as a Feed Additive
3. The Potential of FSF in Enhancing Carcass and Meat Quality in Beef
4. The Potential of FSF in Mitigating the Negative Climate Effects of Beef Production
5. Limitations of the Use of Fossil Shell Flour in Beef Cattle Production
- i.
- Due to the large body size and large amount of feed needed in beef production, the use of FSF will be very challenging, as large amounts of FSF will be needed. This will have a great effect on mining areas due to the demand for fossils and the deleterious impact on the environment and climate change.
- ii.
- Although FSF is known to be completely safe and non-toxic, there may be toxicity that may be associated with the interaction between the mineral content of FSF and that of animal diets, especially when it comes to heavy metals. For instance, FSF is suggested to have a concentration of 79.55 mg/kg of iron, while the daily dietary requirement in cattle is 50 mg of iron per kg of feed, Thus, possible interactions between fossil shell flour mineral contents and basal mineral contents of animal diets remain a research gap that needs to be further explored.
- iii.
- The feasibility of using alternative feeds for ruminants depends among others on the nutritive value, so since the nutritive value of fossil shell flour is also unknown, it is often difficult to determine the impact of its constituents on certain results in many studies. This may result in challenges in mixing well-balanced ratios of the essential nutrients in livestock feeds.
- iv.
- There is a dearth of information or studies to validate the safety of fossil shell flour and recommend safer and/or optimum inclusion levels for specific production purposes and species. This may result in farmers being reluctant to use FSF, especially small-scale farmers.
- v.
- Although FSF inclusion of 4% is suggested to increase N retention and aid in environmental pollution control, nutritional measures using FSF to reduce N excretion affect enteric methane emissions. For instance, a study by Ikusika [61] indicated that 4% and 6% inclusion of FSF in sheep diets increased enteric methane emissions. Thus, at certain inclusion levels, FSF can harm the environment.
6. Conclusions and Recommendations
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Author and Year of Publication | Brief Methodology | Species | Country | Summary of Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ikusika [29] | Twenty-four Dohne Merino rams were completely randomized and individually housed in pens for 90 days. Four different supplementation levels of FSF (0, 20, 40, and 60g/kg) were considered treatments for the rams. | Sheep | South Africa | The average daily feed intake, body condition score, average daily weight gain (g), and coefficient of preference (CoP was evaluated as the proportion of diet consumed by an individual to all the diets’ standard intake) were significantly higher in rams supplemented with 60 g FSF/kg than the other treatments. The order of preference of diets supplemented with FSF in feed intake by Dohne Merino rams was: 60 g FSF/kg > 40 g FSF/kg > 20 g FSF/kg > 0 g FSF/kg. |
Ikusika [30] | Twenty-four wethers, weighing 20 ± 1.5 kg on average were fed dietary food-grade fossil shell flour in a completely randomized design of four treatments with six wethers in each treatment. The wethers were fed a basal diet without FSF addition (control, 0%), or with the addition of FSF (2%, 4%, or 6%) into the diet for 105 days. | Sheep | South Africa | Using fossil shell flour supplementation in the diets (2%, 4%, and 6%) improved dry matter intake, average daily weight gain, and body condition score as well as influenced feed preference and wool production and quality of Dohne–merino wethers. |
Emeruwa [31] | Sixteen rams (18.5 ± 1.05 kg) were allotted to four treatments: Tl (0% FSF), T2 (2% FSF), T3 (4% FSF), and T4 (6% FSF) in a twelve-week growth study. | Sheep | Nigeria | The inclusion of 2.0% fossil shell flour in the diet of West-African dwarf sheep improved dry matter intake and reduced weight loss during lactation, while the inclusion of 4.0% enhanced the daily weight gain. |
Adeyemo [27] | A total of 120-day-old broiler chicks were used for the experiment and randomly allotted to 5 treatments (T1—0.9%, T2—1.2%, T3—1.5%, T4—1.8%, and T5—0% inclusion levels, respectively). | Broiler chickens | Nigeria | Fossil shell inclusion had no significant influence on feed intake and feed conversion ratio but had a significant impact on weight gain. Values for feed intake and feed conversion ratio showed no significant differences (p > 0.05) among the treatment means. Results showed that for feed intake, there were no significant differences (p > 0.05) observed, and all treatments had the same mean value. For feed: gain ratio, T4 had the highest value (2.91) while T1 had the lowest value (2.31). Weight gain, however, showed significant differences (p < 0.05) between T1 and T4 (1.30 and 1.03, respectively). Results for the finisher phase showed no significant differences (p > 0.05) and were observed for weight gain, feed intake, and feed–gain ratio. Values for feed–gain ratio showed that T4 had the highest value (3.10) while the control (T5) had the lowest value (2.06). However, T2 (4.39) and T5 (3.62) had the highest and lowest values, respectively for feed intake. Weight gain values showed that T1 (1.78) and T4 (1.36) had the highest and lowest values, respectively. |
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Soji-Mbongo, Z.; Mpendulo, T.C. Knowledge Gaps on the Utilization of Fossil Shell Flour in Beef Production: A Review. Animals 2024, 14, 333. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14020333
Soji-Mbongo Z, Mpendulo TC. Knowledge Gaps on the Utilization of Fossil Shell Flour in Beef Production: A Review. Animals. 2024; 14(2):333. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14020333
Chicago/Turabian StyleSoji-Mbongo, Zimkhitha, and Thando Conference Mpendulo. 2024. "Knowledge Gaps on the Utilization of Fossil Shell Flour in Beef Production: A Review" Animals 14, no. 2: 333. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14020333