Next Article in Journal
Dietary Neutral Detergent Fiber Levels Impacting Dairy Cows’ Feeding Behavior, Rumen Fermentation, and Production Performance during the Period of Peak-Lactation
Next Article in Special Issue
First Detection of Theileria sinensis-like and Anaplasma capra in Ixodes kashmiricus: With Notes on cox1-Based Phylogenetic Position and New Locality Records
Previous Article in Journal
Classifying Chewing and Rumination in Dairy Cows Using Sound Signals and Machine Learning
Previous Article in Special Issue
Data on New Intermediate and Accidental Hosts Naturally Infected with Angiostrongylus cantonensis in La Gomera and Gran Canaria (Canary Islands, Spain)
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Animals
Volume 13
Issue 18
10.3390/ani13182875
animals-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Sarcocystis spp. Macrocysts Infection in Wildfowl Species in Eastern Baltic Region: Trends in Prevalence in 2011–2022

by
Petras Prakas
1,*,
Jolanta Stankevičiūtė
2,
Saulius Švažas
1,
Evelina Juozaitytė-Ngugu
1,
Dalius Butkauskas
1 and
Rasa Vaitkevičiūtė-Balčė
2
1
Nature Research Centre, Akademijos 2, 08412 Vilnius, Lithuania
2
Agriculture Academy, Vytautas Magnus University, Studentų Str 11, Kaunas District, 53361 Akademija, Lithuania
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Animals 2023, 13(18), 2875; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13182875
Submission received: 22 August 2023 / Revised: 7 September 2023 / Accepted: 7 September 2023 / Published: 10 September 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parasites and Parasitic Diseases in Small Animals)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:

Simple Summary

Macrocysts of the protozoan Sarcocystis rileyi, resembling rice grains, are found in the muscles of numerous duck species. Meat from ducks contaminated with S. rileyi is not suitable for consumption, and severe S. rileyi infections are harmful to infected birds. This Sarcocystis species was reported only in North America for a long time. However, recently, the number of reports of S. rileyi infection in European wild ducks has increased. The present research is the first long-term surveillance study on macrocysts in wildfowl species. Overall, 3268 individuals of wildfowl species collected in Lithuania, Latvia, Russia, and Belarus were tested for macrocysts of Sarcocystis. The examined parasite was detected in 237 Mallards and in two Eurasian Teals. Macrocysts isolated from 37 Mallards were examined by DNA methods and identified as S. rileyi. The infection rates of macrocysts in Mallards in the examined region ranged from 3.1% to 8.7%. The fluctuations in infection rates were observed in different years, months, and studied countries. Based on the results of the current research and previous studies, the prevalence of macrocysts depends on the duck species, age of the bird, year, geographical region, and hunting season but is not related to the sex of the bird.

Abstract

Wildfowl meat infected with S. rileyi macrocysts is not suitable for human consumption. Ducks are among the main game birds in Europe, and S. rileyi infections cause significant economic losses. In 2011–2022, a total of 2649 anseriforms collected in Lithuania and 619 Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) hunted in the Kaliningrad region of Russia, Belarus, and Latvia were tested for macrocysts. In Lithuania, macrocysts were detected in 206 of 2362 Mallards (8.7%) and in two of 88 (2.3%) Eurasian Teals (Anas crecca). The prevalence of macrocysts in the other three countries, Belarus (5.9%), Russia (5.0%), and Latvia (3.1%), was similar. For species identification, macrocysts isolated from 37 Mallards (21 from Lithuania, 8 from Russia, 6 from Belarus, and 2 from Latvia) were subjected to sequencing of the ITS1 region. Based on DNA analysis, S. rileyi was confirmed in all tested birds. By comparing the infection rates of macrocysts in Mallards in Lithuania, significant differences were observed in different years (p = 0.036), and a significantly higher prevalence of infection was established in November–December than in September–October (p = 0.028). Given the amount of data per decade on the prevalence of S. rileyi, awareness of infection needs to be increased.

1. Introduction

The genus Sarcocystis is a large group of worldwide distributed protozoan parasites that infect mammals, birds, and reptiles. These parasites have an obligatory two-host life cycle [1]. The intermediate host gets infected through food or water-containing sporocysts, whereas the definitive host becomes infected through predating or scavenging tissues containing mature sarcocysts [1,2].
Wild and domestic birds are intermediate hosts for 28 Sarcocystis species [3,4]. Some of these species are pathogenic, causing severe myositis, encephalitis, hepatitis, and pneumonia [5,6,7,8,9,10]. Birds of the order Anseriformes are known to be intermediate hosts of five Sarcocystis species: Sarcocystis albifronsi, Sarcocystis anasi, Sarcocystis platyrhynchosi, Sarcocystis rileyi, and Sarcocystis wobeseri [4,11,12,13,14]. Four of these species, S. albifronsi, S. anasi, S. rileyi, and S. wobeseri, have been detected in ducks and geese from Lithuania [12,13,14,15]. Only macrocysts of S. rileyi are visible to the naked eye [11,14,15,16], while other Sarcocystis species form microcysts in the muscles of anseriforms [4,12,13]. Although S. rileyi is not considered to be pathogenic, hunted birds infected with macrocysts of this species are not suitable for human consumption [17,18,19,20,21,22]. Therefore, extensive efforts have been made to investigate the epidemiology and determine hosts of S. rileyi.
For a long time, reports of macrocysts in the muscles of anseriforms came almost exclusively from North America. Macrocysts were observed in numerous duck species of the genera Aix, Anas, Aythya, Bucephala, Mareca, Melanitta, and Spatula [11,16,18,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34]. Based on the first summary list of Sarcocystis spp. in birds, presented by Erickson in 1940, macrocysts of Sarcocystis spp. were detected in the Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), American Black Duck (Anas rubripes), Gadwall (Mareca strepera), Northern Pintail (Anas acuta), Blue-Winged Teal (Spatula discors), and Northern Shoveler (Spatula clypeata) in North America [24]. Later in North America, macrocysts were recorded in the Green-Winged Teal (Anas carolinensis), Wood Duck (Aix sponsa), Greater Scaup (Aythya marila), Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola), American Wigeon (Mareca americana), Redhead (Aythya americana), Canvasback (Aythya valisineria), Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) [26], Mottled Duck (Anas fulvigula), Lesser Scaup (Aythya affinis) [27], and Velvet Scoter (Melanitta fusca) [30].
In 2003, a detailed morphological characterization of macrocysts found in the Shoveler Duck (Anus cylpeata) was provided using light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy, and the parasite detected was redescribed as S. rileyi [11]. The first molecular characterization of S. rileyi was carried out in 2010 on macrocysts isolated from the Mallard collected in the USA [16]. Based on DNA sequencing of three genetic loci, macrocysts found in Mallards were confirmed as S. rileyi in Europe in 2011 [14]. Notably, reports on macrocysts in waterfowl, mainly Mallards, have increased in the twenty-first century in Europe [14,15,17,19,20,21,22,35,36].
Based on the experimental infection, the striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) (Mephistidae family) was confirmed to be a definitive host of S. rileyi in North America [37,38]. The striped skunk is unsuitable for the distribution of S. rileyi in Europe since this small predatory animal lives on this continent only in captivity [39]. The molecular analysis enabled the identification of S. rileyi sporocysts in representatives of the families Canidae and Mustelidae in Europe. In Germany, S. rileyi was confirmed in the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and in the raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) [40]. In addition to these two predatory species, S. rileyi was also identified in the small intestines of the members of the family Mustelidae, in the American mink (Neogale vison), the European polecat (Mustela putorius), and the European badger (Meles meles) from Lithuania [41,42].
The prevalence of macrocysts of Sarcocystis in wild ducks depends on various factors, such as bird species, age, sex, location, etc., and has been broadly studied in North America [27,28,30]. However, detailed studies on Sarcocystis species identification, variety of intermediate hosts, life cycle, and infection rates of macrocysts in anseriforms in Europe are still lacking. Results of the first long-term (over a decade) surveillance study on macrocysts of Sarcocystis in wildfowl species in Europe (with more than 3000 anseriforms checked for macrocysts in Lithuania, Latvia, Russia, and Belarus) and molecular identification of S. rileyi in Mallards from four countries are presented in the present paper.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Sample Collection

For the evaluation of macrocysts in wildfowl, 2649 birds were collected in Lithuania in 2011–2014 and 2017–2022. Mallards accounted for the largest number of birds surveyed (2362), although 287 wildfowl belonging to other 12 species were also analyzed. The examined birds were collected from all counties in Lithuania.
The majority of the analyzed birds were legally hunted during the open hunting season (August–December) by licensed third parties, following the Hunting Law of the Republic of Lithuania. It should be noted that the birds were not hunted for the survey. Specifically, all examined Mallards, as well as 88 Eurasian Teals (Anas crecca), 46 Greater White-Fronted Geese (Anser albifrons), 29 Tufted Ducks (Aythya fuligula), 25 Garganeys (Spatula querquedula), 16 Common Goldeneyes, five Barnacle Geese (Branta leucopsis), and a single Bean Goose (Anser fabalis) were hunted. Furthermore, birds of several other wildfowl species found dead were received from Kaunas Tadas Ivanauskas Zoology Museum (the national authority responsible for monitoring wild birds found dead) and examined. This sample included 42 Velvet Scoters, 14 Gadwalls, 10 Long-Tailed Ducks (Clangula hyemalis), 10 Eurasian Wigeons (Mareca penelope), and a single Common Pochard (Aythya ferina). Carcasses of birds collected by hunters and staff from the Kaunas Tadas Ivanauskas Zoology Museum were frozen and delivered to scientific laboratories for examination of sarcocysts.
In addition, a total of 619 Mallards were received from neighboring countries. Specifically, 319 Mallards were delivered from the Kaliningrad Region of Russia, 202 birds came from Belarus, and 98 were sent from Latvia. All analyzed Mallards were hunted in the autumn seasons of 2012–2014 in accordance with the national hunting regulations valid in the countries concerned and checked for macrocysts of Sarcocystis.
The skin of all collected birds was peeled from the head to the area of the knee tendons, and the muscles were examined grossly for macrocysts of Sarcocystis spp. visible to the naked eye.

2.2. Molecular Examination of Macrocysts

During the study, the investigators presumed that macrocysts observed in ducks belonged to S. rileyi. For the confirmation of the parasite species, only some of the macrocysts isolated from the infected birds were subjected to DNA analysis. Sarcocystis species have not been molecularly identified in all infected ducks, mainly due to the fact that the research was carried out by two independent research groups and also taking financial issues into account.
During the period of 2011–2014, birds examined were transported to the Laboratory of Molecular Ecology of the Nature Research Centre (Vilnius, Lithuania). At that time, macrocysts isolated from 32 infected Mallards were subjected to DNA analysis for confirmation of Sarcocystis species. In all cases, a single macrocyst was excised from an individual bird. In total, two of the infected Mallards came from Latvia, six from Belarus, eight from the Kaliningrad Region of Russia, and the remaining sixteen birds were hunted in Lithuania.
Meanwhile, from 2017 to 2022, monitoring of macroscopic sarcocysts found in ducks hunted in Lithuania was carried out. The collected individuals of wildfowl species were submitted to the Laboratory of Forest Sciences Department of the Faculty of Forestry and Ecology of the Agriculture Academy of Vytautas Magnus University (Kaunas, Lithuania). The carcasses of birds were surveyed for the macrocysts of Sarcocystis, but only five macrocysts isolated from individual Mallards hunted in late autumn 2022 in Lithuania were examined by molecular methods. Thus, in total, macrocysts isolated from 37 Mallards were used for molecular identification of Sarcocystis species.
Prior to the molecular analysis, the macrocysts were stored in individual tubes filled with 75% ethyl alcohol at −20 °C. The genomic DNA from the sarcocysts was extracted using spin-column based commercial kits, “NucleoSpin Tissue, Mini kit” (Macherey-Nagel, Düren, Germany), “QIAamp® DNA Micro Kit” (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany), or “GeneJET Genomic DNA Purification Kit” (Thermo Fisher Scientific Baltics, Vilnius, Lithuania). Regardless of the kit, 100 μL of commercial Elution Buffer was added in the last step of DNA purification to elute the genomic DNA. For Sarcocystis species identification, all the DNA samples were subjected to the amplification of internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1), situated between 18S rRNA and 5.8S rRNA. This molecular locus is considered to be the most variable for Sarcocystis spp. in birds [43]. Furthermore, eight DNA isolates obtained from macrocysts of Mallards hunted in Lithuania were genetically characterized at 18S rDNA and 28S rDNA, and four of these isolates were also characterized at mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I (cox1) and the RNA polymerase B gene of the apicoplast genome (rpoB). The oligonucleotide primers used for the amplification, conditions of PCRs, purification of amplified PCR products, and procedures of direct Sanger sequencing were performed as described previously [44]. The resulting sequences were manually checked for ambiguously placed nucleotides and merged into a single fragment in the case of 18S rDNA. Finally, the obtained DNA fragments were checked for similarity using the nucleotide BLAST program [45].

2.3. Statistical Data Analysis

A 95% confidence interval (CI) for the determined prevalence of macrocysts in different years, host species, countries, sexes, and months was computed using Sterne’s exact method [46]. A pair-wise comparison of infection rates of macrocysts was made by the unconditional exact test [47]. The following analysis is more sensitive in detecting differences than Fisher’s exact test and is especially advantageous in the case of small samples (n1, n2 < 100). Fisher’s exact test was used to compare the prevalence data of macrocysts between three and six samples, and the Chi-squared test was used when more than six samples were compared. Statistical analyses were performed in Quantitative Parasitology 3.0 software [48].

3. Results

3.1. The Occurrence of Macrocysts in Wildfowl Species and Parasite Load

Macroscopic sarcocysts were found almost exclusively in the pectoral muscles of birds, although they were also detected in the neck muscles of several individuals. The exact number of birds with macrocysts in their necks was not recorded.
Macrocysts of Sarcocystis were yellowish-white in color and 2.0–7.0 × 1.5–2.0 mm (1.8 × 4.6 mm) in size. They resembled rice grains in shape and color. It is noteworthy that the parasite load varied greatly in infected birds. Among all the examined individuals, several were heavily infected, some birds acquired moderate infection, and in the carcasses of other birds, only single macrocysts were detected (Figure 1). However, during this study, the parasite load in the muscles of birds was not examined in detail, and parasite load categorization according to the number of macrocysts observed was subjective.

3.2. The Prevalence of Macrocysts of Sarcocystis in Wildfowl in Lithuania and Neighboring Countries

Overall, macrocysts were found in 206 of 2362 (8.7%, CI = 7.65–9.93%) Mallards collected in Lithuania during different years (2011–2014 and 2017–2022). A similar prevalence was observed in the examined Mallards collected in Lithuania, the Kaliningrad Region of the Russian Federation, Belarus, and Latvia, from 3.1% (CI = 0.84–8.53%) in Latvia to 5.9% (CI = 3.37–10.08%) in Belarus (Table 1), although differences were not significant. However, significant differences were noticed when comparing the prevalence of infection in 2012 (p = 0.005) and 2014 (p = 0.002). In 2012, infection rates were much higher in the Kaliningrad Region of Russia (p = 0.002) and Belarus (p = 0.010) than those in Lithuania. Whereas in 2014, a significantly higher prevalence of macrocysts was recorded in Lithuania than that observed in the Kaliningrad Region of Russia (p = 0.005) and Belarus (p = 0.008) (Table 1).
A significant difference (χ2 = 17.97, df = 9, p = 0.035) was observed when comparing the prevalence of macrocysts in Mallards collected in different years (2011–2014 and 2017–2022) in Lithuania (Figure 2). The difference remained significant (χ2 = 15.70, df = 7, p = 0.028) when samples containing fewer than 150 birds (2013 and 2014 years) were excluded. The lowest prevalence was estimated in 2012 (1.3%, CI = 0.23–4.60%), while the highest was in 2014 (13.6%, CI = 7.07–24.01%) (Figure 2). Prevalence was relatively consistent, varying from 7.7 to 11.9% in 2017–2022. The prevalence of macrocysts in 2012 was significantly lower than that determined in 2011 (p = 0.002), 2014 (p < 0.001), 2017 (p < 0.001), 2018 (p < 0.001), 2019 (p < 0.001), 2020 (p = 0.001), 2021 (p < 0.001), and 2022 (p = 0.002). Also, a low prevalence was determined in Mallards collected in 2013 (4.8%, CI = 0.2–23.3%); however, this data should be interpreted with caution due to the small sample size of the birds examined (n = 21).
Out of the other 12 wildfowl species tested (287 individuals), macrocysts were detected only in the breast muscles of the Eurasian Teal, with a low prevalence (2.3%, 2 infected of 88 analyzed, CI = 0.41–7.79%). In Lithuania, a significantly higher (p = 0.030) prevalence of macrocysts was established in Mallards (206/2362, 8.7%) than that observed in Eurasian Teals (2/88, 2.3%).

3.3. Factors Influencing the Prevalence of Macrocysts of Sarcocystis in the Mallard

In 2011–2014 and 2017–2022, the lowest prevalence of macrocysts of Sarcocystis spp. in Mallards in Lithuania was noticed in October (7.4%, CI = 5.56–9.72%) and in September (7.7%, CI = 5.78–10.01%) (Figure 3), while the highest was observed in December (14.1%, CI = 8.07–23.40%). The infection rate in August (9.6%, CI = 7.63–11.83%) and in November (10.6%, CI = 7.05–15.31%) was similar. The prevalence was independent of the month when Mallards were hunted. However, a pair-wise analysis demonstrated a significantly higher prevalence in November–December than in September–October (p = 0.028). Also, a significantly higher prevalence of macrocysts was determined in November–December than in October (p = 0.036) and in December than in September–October (p = 0.038).
In Lithuania, during the hunting season (2011–2014 and 2017–2022), a higher but statistically insignificant prevalence was detected in Mallard males (99 infected of 1085 analyzed, 9.1%, CI = 7.55–10.99) than in females (107 infected of 1277 examined, 8.4%, CI = 6.98–10.03).

3.4. Molecular Identification of S. rileyi in Mallards from Lithuania, Russia, Belarus, and Latvia

Based on the comparison of the current work-generated DNA sequences, S. rileyi was confirmed in all tested Mallards, 21 from Lithuania, eight from the Kaliningrad Region of Russia, six from Belarus, and two from Latvia. Comparing the present work determined sequences of the five genetic loci, intraspecific variation was not observed.
Thirty-seven 942 bp-long sequences of the complete ITS1 region were 100% identical to each other and showed 100% identity to S. rileyi previously identified in Mallard from Lithuania (HM185744) and to other European isolates of S. rileyi from ducks (KJ396584, MZ151434, MZ468639-40, LT992314). Single ITS1 region sequences from four different countries have been submitted to GenBank under accession numbers OR416415–OR416418. The obtained ITS1 sequences also displayed 99.9% identity to S. rileyi from Mallard collected in the USA (GU188427) and 99.5–100% identity to S. rileyi observed in the small intestines of the American mink, European polecat, and European badger (OP970971–81) from Lithuania.
In addition to the ITS1 region, eight partial 1753 bp-long 18S rDNA, eight 1499 bp-long 28S rDNA, four 1053 bp-long cox1, and four 762 bp-long rpoB sequences were identified. As the sequences identified during this study were identical in the same genetic region, one each of 18S rDNA (OR416136), 28S rDNA (OR416169), cox1 (OR423018), and rpoB (OR423019) were uploaded to the GenBank. In the current work, the obtained rDNA sequences were 100% identical with homological sequences of S. rileyi previously defined in Mallard from Lithuania (HM185742–43). Our 1753 bp-long 18S rDNA sequences showed 100% identity with S. rileyi isolated from various countries and hosts (GU120092, KJ396583, KM233682, MZ151434, MZ468637–38), 99.8% identity with S. rileyi isolates obtained from Mallard, Gadwall European and Eurasian Wigeons in the UK (LT992317–23), and 99.8% identity with the 1010 bp-long sequence of S. rileyi (KX170885) obtained from Northern Shoveler in Mexico. Notably, sequence mismatches were observed only at the ends of the aligned 18S rDNA sequences, suggesting that these differences are due to sequencing errors rather than representing intraspecific genetic variability. The 1499 bp-long 28S rDNA sequences determined in the present work demonstrated 100% identity to S. rileyi from Mallards in Denmark (MZ151434, MZ468640–41) from Mallard in the USA (GU188426) and 99.9% identity to S. rileyi from Common Eider in Norway (KJ396585). The 762 bp-long rpoB sequence determined in the present study showed 100% identity with that of S. rileyi, previously also isolated from Mallard in Lithuania (MF596308). Finally, our 1053 bp-long cox1 sequence displayed 100% similarity compared to S. rileyi from Common Eider in Norway (KJ396582).
In terms of interspecific genetic variability, the largest differences between S. rileyi and the most related species, Sarcocystis atraii, Sarcocystis wenzeli, Sarcocystis cristata, Sarcocystis chloropusae, S. anasi and S. albifronsi [3,49,50], were observed in the ITS1 region (9.9–25.7%). Comparing S. rileyi with the listed Sarcocystis species, much less variability was determined within cox1 (2.4–3.6%), rpoB (2.6–4.1%) and 28S rDNA (0.6–3.8%) while differences in 18S rDNA were minimal (0.3–1.1%).

4. Discussion

4.1. The Genetic Identification and Variability of S. rileyi

Among hunters and veterinarians, S. rileyi is known as a parasite that forms “rice-like grains”. Macrocysts were discovered in a duck by Riley and were named S. rileyi by Stiles in 1893 [51]. Thus, S. rileyi is the first Sarcocystis species discovered in birds and, in general, one of the first Sarcocystis species described [1]. Researchers finding macrocysts in the muscles of waterfowl attributed them to S. rileyi [11,23,24,26]. Taking into account that five Sarcocystis spp. are known to form sarcocysts in the muscles of anseriforms [4], the possibility that more than one species of Sarcocystis may constitute macrocysts in the muscles of ducks cannot be excluded [16]. Therefore, molecular methods are needed for the identification of S. rileyi [11,16]. In the current investigation, macrocysts were found in 239 individuals of two wildfowl species (237 Mallards and two Eurasian Teals). Due to the limitation of this study that molecular methods were only used on the part of the infected birds, we cannot claim that all infected ducks harbored macrocysts of S. rileyi. Overall, thirty-seven macrocysts were molecularly analyzed, and S. rileyi was identified in twenty-one Mallards from Lithuania, eight Mallards from Russia’s Kaliningrad Region, six Mallards from Belarus, and two Mallards from Latvia. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of S. rileyi in Russia, Belarus, and Latvia. Notably, macrocysts have previously been found in the muscles of ducks from Russia, but no molecular investigations have been carried out on the parasites detected [52,53]. Based on the recent reports on S. rileyi in various European countries [14,15,17,19,20,21,22,35,36] and records of experienced local hunters, macrocysts of Sarcocystis are assumed to be spreading geographically [22]. In Lithuania, S. rileyi in Mallards has been previously confirmed using DNA sequence analysis [14,15]. Summarizing the results of this research and previous studies carried out in Lithuania, all 40 genetically examined macrocysts isolated from different Mallard individuals were identified as S. rileyi [14,15; and present work]. In light of these data, we believe that most of the macrocysts found in the muscles of Mallards hunted in Lithuania should belong to S. rileyi.
Based on the results of the present and earlier studies [14,15,16,21,22,43,54], the ITS1 region is the most suitable loci for the identification of S. rileyi, as significantly less interspecific variation is observed when comparing nuclear sequences of the 18S rDNA, 28S rDNA, mitochondrial cox1, and apicoplast rpoB loci. Recently, the complete ITS2 region of S. rileyi, which is located between 5.8S rDNA and 28S rDNA, has been reported [22]. This genetic marker has good potential for the identification of species in the Sarcocystidae family [55]. In the current study, no intraspecific variation has been observed when analyzing sequenced isolates of S. rileyi. The restricted genetic diversity of S. rileyi has been reported previously [15]. Among the genetic regions currently used most frequently for the characterization of Sarcocystis species employing birds as intermediate hosts [3,56], ITS1 is known to be the most variable at the intraspecific level [57]. The current data available in GenBank show low intraspecific variability of S. rileyi within ITS1. Intriguingly, high intraspecific genetic variation was observed for Sarcocystis halieti [54,58] and Sarcocystis falcatula [59,60,61] using birds of several different orders as their intermediate hosts. Thus, the relatively low intraspecific genetic variability of S. rileyi might be explained by the high intermediate host specificity, as macrocysts of S. rileyi have only been validated in ducks of the family Anatidae [11,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22].

4.2. The Distribution of Sarcocystis Macrocysts in Different Wildfowl Species

Summarizing record data on macrocysts of Sarcocystis spp. in wildfowl species in North America, this infection occurs significantly more often in dabbling ducks than in diving ones [27,32]. Dabbling ducks feed in shallower wetlands and upland regions, so they have a greater chance of ingesting the fecal material of predators than divers do [28]. Apart from North America, macrocysts have been found in ducks in Europe [14,15,17,19,20,21,22,35,36,62] but not in Australia or Asia [63,64], while ducks were not examined for Sarcocystis spp. in detail in South America and Africa [1,11,16].
The range of intermediate hosts of macrocysts of Sarcocystis is considerably smaller in Europe than in North America. In Europe, macrocysts were mostly recorded in Mallards [14,17,19,20,21,22,35,62], Common Eider (Somateria mollissima) in Norway [36], Eurasian Wigeon, Eurasian Teal in Finland and the UK [15,21], in the Gadwall, and Northern Pintail in the UK [21]. In the present study, macrocysts were observed in Mallards and Eurasian Teals collected in Lithuania. This is the first survey in which macrocysts of Sarcocystis have been detected in European Teal Lithuania. In the previous study conducted in Lithuania, macrocysts were found only in Mallards [14,15,62]. In the present study, macrocysts were not noticed in other wildfowl species analyzed. The non-detection of macrocysts in other bird species can be explained by the small number of individuals examined (n = 1–46). However, taking into account records of macrocysts and data on infection rates in this study and previous investigations [14,15,21], it is suggested that the Mallard is the main source of macrocyst infection in Europe. Nevertheless, it cannot be ruled out that the highest number of detections of macrocysts in Mallards in Europe [15,21] is related to the fact that this species is the most hunted of all the anseriforms [65,66]. On the contrary, in North America, the prevalence of macrocysts in Mallards was not the highest as compared to that in Northern Pintails, Blue-winged Teals, Green-Winged Teals, American Wigeons, Northern Shovelers [27,28], Lesser Scaups, Velvet Scoters [30], American Black Ducks [32], and Mottled Ducks [34]. Thus, in North America, compared to Europe, macrocysts are more common in various duck species [11,16,18,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34]. A smaller range of intermediate hosts in Europe, compared to North America, may indicate that in Europe, the infection of macrocysts of Sarcocystis spp. has spread recently [14,15,17,19,20,21,22,35,36,62].

4.3. Factors Affecting the Prevalence of Macrocysts of Sarcocystis spp. in the Mallard in Lithuania

The first report on macrocysts in Mallards in Europe was recorded in Russia in the middle of the 20th century [52,53]. Reports of macrocysts of Sarcocystis in Europe have increased in the 21st century. Macrocysts in ducks were detected in Lithuania [14,15,62], Poland [17], the Slovak Republic [35], Finland [15], Norway [36], the Czech Republic, Sweden, the Netherlands, Austria [for details see 15], Hungary [20], UK [19,21], and Denmark [22]. Thus, macrocysts were most commonly reported in northern, eastern, and central Europe. Based on molecular results, the invasive American mink is one of the definitive hosts of S. rileyi [42]. This predator of the family Mustelidae is native to North America, and its introduced range [67,68] partially coincides with the geography of the distribution of macrocysts of Sarcocystis spp. in Europe. Therefore, it can be speculated that the spread of S. rileyi in Europe is associated with the introduction of American mink to this continent.
In the present study, the exceptionally low prevalence of macrocysts (1.3%, CI = 0.23–4.60%) was determined in Mallards hunted in 2012 in Lithuania (Figure 3). Infection rates determined in 2012 were significantly lower than those observed in 2011, 2014, and 2017–2022. Furthermore, infection rates of macrocysts of Sarcocystis spp. observed in Lithuania and Kaliningrad/Belarus differed significantly in 2012 and 2014 (Table 1). These findings can be partly accounted for by the different periods when Mallards were hunted in the countries concerned. In Lithuania, the majority of the ducks analyzed in 2012 were hunted in August–early September (with local breeders forming the majority of the analyzed ducks), whereas in Belarus and the Kaliningrad Region of Russia, ducks were hunted in August–December 2012. Some Mallards staging and wintering in Lithuania, Belarus, and the Kaliningrad Region of Russia in October–December are breeders from Northern Europe [69]. A higher prevalence of macrocysts detected in Belarus and the Kaliningrad Region of Russia in 2012 is likely to have been caused by a larger proportion of the analyzed migrants from the major region of Northern Europe [70,71]. It should be noted that a different prevalence of macrocysts was also observed in different geographical areas of the USA and Canada [27,30]. The data obtained was explained by the different migratory routes of the infected birds and the abundance of predators in the breeding and wintering grounds of ducks [30].
To the best of our knowledge, the current study is the first to evaluate the prevalence of macrocysts of Sarcocystis spp. in intermediate hosts in different months. We demonstrated that the infection rate of macrocysts in Mallards hunted in Lithuania was significantly higher in November–December than in Mallards hunted in September–October. The data obtained can be explained by the fact that in November–December, migrants from Northern Europe form a significant proportion of all Mallards recorded in Lithuania [65,66]. However, to test the above assumption, further research on this infection is needed by comparing epidemiological data on parasites with genetic data on Mallard populations.
In this study, we found no significant differences when comparing the detection of macrocysts in the muscles of female and male Mallards. Thus, our findings are in agreement with previous studies showing that the prevalence of macrocysts does not depend on the sex of the birds examined [27,30].

4.4. The Significance of Macrocyst Infection in Ducks

Previous studies have demonstrated that some ducks infected with macrocysts of Sarcocystis show signs of myopathy [5,6,7,8,9,10]; however, histological examination does not show that the muscles of ducks are severely affected [21]. Even though this infection is not considered pathogenic, it may interfere with the energy and protein metabolism of birds [33]. Furthermore, severe infections of macrocysts in muscles used for locomotion may cause a reduced flying capacity and ability to withstand migration, weakness, and an increased probability of becoming a victim of predators [72].
Significant economic losses are incurred worldwide as a result of macrocysts of Sarcocystis spp. [21]. The Mallard is the world’s most abundant and widely distributed dabbling duck species, whose global population is estimated at 20 million individuals [66]. In Lithuania, it is the most abundant breeding wildfowl species, with an estimated population of about 60,000 pairs [71]. The Mallard is one of the most harvested game species worldwide, with more than 4.5 million birds annually hunted in Europe [65]. Activities related to the hunting of the Mallard constitute an important part of income in the recreation, tourism, agriculture, food, and catering sectors. Meat from hunted ducks infected with macrocysts of Sarcocystis is not suitable for human consumption [1,15,19,21,22,35,36]. The toxic effects of the parasites can be harmful when eating heavily infected ducks [30], though properly cooked meat from infected ducks is considered to be harmless to humans [73]. Therefore, awareness related to the infection of macrocysts must be increased among hunters, veterinarians, and the general public. Infection by Sarcocystis spp. parasites and their prevention are mentioned among the biological contamination risk factors specified in the game meat safety requirements valid in Lithuania and in other countries of the European Union. There is a lack of such strict regulations in the countries of Eastern Europe, where large quantities of meat from hunted ducks are consumed in the households of hunters. Furthermore, changes in game eating habits are observed; dishes are increasingly being prepared from raw, uncooked game meat. Therefore, hunters should be able to recognize macroscopic sarcocysts and know how to utilize the infected birds [19,21,22].
The Mallard can also form a potential link between domestic birds and wild ducks in spreading parasites of the genus Sarcocystis. During migration periods, staging Mallards are recorded in numerous pools and ponds used for the production of domestic ducks and geese in various regions of Eastern Europe [71]. These ducks are very tolerant of human presence and are common in urban and agricultural habitats, thus forming a potential link between wild waterfowl, poultry, and humans [74]. More than three million Mallards reared in captivity are released annually for hunting purposes in Europe [75]. There is a lack of knowledge about the infection of macrocysts of Sarcocystis in poultry, as reports on macrocysts in domestic ducks are very scarce [24,53]. Therefore, it is important to undertake studies into the potential infection of macrocysts in poultry, particularly among the millions of farmed Mallards that are released for hunting purposes in Europe each year.

5. Conclusions

Sarcocystis rileyi was, for the first time, identified in Mallards hunted in the Kaliningrad region of the Russian Federation, Belarus, and Latvia based on DNA sequencing analysis of some of the birds infected with macrocysts. Findings of the present work show that infection rates of macrocysts of Sarcocystis in the muscles of ducks depend on the host species, hunting year, geographical region, and hunting season.
The Mallard is the main source of infection by macrocysts in Europe. Since the Mallard is one of the most harvested game bird species worldwide and its meat contaminated with macrocysts of Sarcocystis is not suitable for consumption, awareness of the infection of macrocysts must be increased. Hunted ducks should be tested for rice-like macrocysts, and it is recommended that hunted macrocyst-infected ducks not be left in the wild, consumed as food, or fed to domestic predators. Also, further studies on the macrocysts of Sarcocystis spp. in farmed ducks are needed.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, P.P., J.S., D.B. and R.V.-B.; methodology, P.P., J.S. and R.V.-B.; software, P.P. and J.S.; validation, J.S. and S.Š.; formal analysis, P.P., J.S. and S.Š.; investigation, P.P., D.B., J.S., R.V.-B. and E.J.-N.; resources, D.B. and R.V.-B.; data curation, P.P. and J.S.; writing—original draft preparation, P.P., J.S. and S.Š.; writing—review and editing, P.P., J.S., S.Š., D.B., R.V.-B. and E.J.-N.; visualization, P.P., J.S. and R.V.-B.; supervision, P.P. and R.V.-B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Part of the study conducted in the years 2013–2015 was conducted within the project “Investigations into genus Sarcocystis parasites from birds order Anseriformes”, funded by the Research Council of Lithuania (Grant No. MIP-55/2013) and headed by Dr. Petras Prakas.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Samples were collected with the permission of the Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Lithuania (19 March 2013 no. 17; 31 March 2014 no. 15; 23 March 2017 no. 26-A4-3119; 1 March 2019 no. 26-A4-1535; 31 March 2021 no. 26-SR-89).

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The sequences of S. rileyi generated in the current research were submitted to the NCBI GenBank database under accession numbers OR416136, OR416169, OR416415–OR416418, OR423018, OR423019.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to Alexander Kozulin, Gennady Grishanov, and Mara Janaus for providing bird samples for this study collected in Belarus, the Kaliningrad Region of Russia, and Latvia. We would like to express our sincere gratitude to numerous Lithuanian hunters who have regularly cooperated with scientists in monitoring S. rileyi in wildfowls.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Dubey, J.P.; Calero-Bernal, R.; Rosenthal, B.M.; Speer, C.A.; Fayer, R. Sarcocystosis of Animals and Humans, 2nd ed.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  2. Fayer, R. Sarcocystis spp. in Human Infections. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2004, 17, 894–902. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Máca, O.; González-Solís, D. Sarcocystis cristata sp. nov. (Apicomplexa, Sarcocystidae) in the Imported Great Blue Turaco Corythaeola cristata (Aves, Musophagidae). Parasit. Vectors 2021, 14, 56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Hu, J.; Zhang, M.; Wu, Z.; Zeng, H.; Tao, J. Description of Sarcocystis platyrhynchosi n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Sarcocystidae) from Domestic Ducks Anas platyrhynchos (Anseriformes: Anatidae) in China. Parasit. Vectors 2023, 16, 50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Smith, J.H.; Neill, P.J.; Box, E.D. Pathogenesis of Sarcocystis falcatula (Apicomplexa: Sarcocystidae) in the Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus). III. Pathologic and Quantitative Parasitologic Analysis of Extrapulmonary Disease. J. Parasitol. 1989, 75, 270–287. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Olias, P.; Gruber, A.D.; Heydorn, A.O.; Kohls, A.; Mehlhorn, H.; Hafez, H.M.; Lierz, M. A Novel Sarcocystis-Associated Encephalitis and Myositis in Racing Pigeons. Avian Pathol. 2009, 38, 121–2128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Wünschmann, A.; Rejmanek, D.; Cruz-Martinez, L.; Barr, B.C. Sarcocystis falcatula-Associated Encephalitis in a Bree-Ranging Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus). J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2009, 21, 283–287. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  8. Olias, P.; Gruber, A.D.; Heydorn, A.O.; Kohls, A.; Hafez, H.M.; Lierz, M. Unusual Biphasic Disease in Domestic Pigeons (Columba livia f. domestica) Following Experimental Infection with Sarcocystis calchasi. Avian Dis. 2010, 54, 1032–1037. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Olias, P.; Gruber, A.D.; Kohls, A.; Hafez, H.M.; Heydorn, A.O.; Mehlhorn, H.; Lierz, M. Sarcocystis Species Lethal for Domestic Pigeons. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2010, 16, 497–499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Wünschmann, A.; Rejmanek, D.; Conrad, P.A.; Hall, N.; Cruz-Martinez, L.; Vaughn, S.B.; Barr, B.C. Natural Fatal Sarcocystis falcatula Infections in Free-Ranging Eagles in North America. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2010, 22, 282–289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  11. Dubey, J.P.; Cawthorn, R.J.; Speer, C.A.; Wobeser, G.A. Redescription of the Sarcocysts of Sarcocystis rileyi (Apicomplexa: Sarcocystidae). J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 2003, 50, 476–482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Kutkienė, L.; Prakas, P.; Sruoga, A.; Butkauskas, D. Description of Sarcocystis anasi sp. nov. and Sarcocystis albifronsi sp. nov. in Birds of the Order Anseriformes. Parasitol. Res. 2012, 110, 1043–1046. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Kutkienė, L.; Prakas, P.; Sruoga, A.; Butkauskas, D. The mallard duck (Anas platyrhynchos) as intermediate host for Sarcocystis wobeseri sp. nov. from the barnacle goose (Branta leucopsis). Parasitol. Res. 2010, 107, 879–888. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Kutkienė, L.; Prakas, P.; Sruoga, A.; Butkauskas, D. Identification of Sarcocystis rileyi from the Mallard Duck (Anas platyrhynchos) in Europe: Cyst Morphology and Results of DNA Analysis. Parasitol. Res. 2011, 108, 709–714. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Prakas, P.; Oksanen, A.; Butkauskas, D.; Sruoga, A.; Kutkienė, L.; Švažas, S.; Isomursu, M.; Liaugaudaitė, S. Identification and Intraspecific Genetic Diversity of Sarcocystis rileyi from Ducks, Anas spp., in Lithuania and Finland. J. Parasitol. 2014, 100, 657–661. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Dubey, J.P.; Rosenthal, B.M.; Felix, T.A. Morphologic and Molecular Characterization of the Sarcocysts of Sarcocystis rileyi (Apicomplexa: Sarcocystidae) from the Mallard duck (Anas platyrhynchos). J. Parasitol. 2010, 96, 765–770. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Kalisinska, E.; Betlejewska, K.M.; Schmidt, M.; Gozdzicka-Jozefiak, A.; Tomczyk, G. Protozoal Macrocysts in the Skeletal Muscle of a Mallard duck in Poland: The First Recorded Case. Acta Parasitol. 2003, 48, 1–5. [Google Scholar]
  18. Padilla-Aguilar, P.; Romero-Callejas, E.; Osorio-Sarabia, D.; Ramírez-Lezama, J.; Cigarroa-Toledo, N.; Machain-Williams, C.; Manterola, C.; Zarza, H. Detection and Molecular Identification of Sarcocystis rileyi (Apicomplexa: Sarcocystidae) From a Northern Shoveler (Anas clypeata) in Mexico. J. Wildl. Dis. 2016, 52, 931–935. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  19. Cromie, R.; Ellis, M. Sarcocystis Survey. Sarcocystis Survey Feedback Report—The UK Wildfowl Sarcocystis Survey. 2019. Available online: www.sarcocystissurvey.org.uk/2015-2018-feedback-report/ (accessed on 15 December 2022).
  20. Szekeres, S.; Juhász, A.; Kondor, M.; Takács, N.; Sugár, L.; Hornok, S. Sarcocystis rileyi Emerging in Hungary: Is Rice Breast Disease Underreported in the Region? Acta Vet. Hung. 2019, 67, 401–406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  21. Muir, A.; Ellis, M.; Blake, D.P.; Chantrey, J.; Strong, E.A.; Reeves, J.P.; Cromie, R.L. Sarcocystis rileyi in UK Free-living Wildfowl (Anatidae): Surveillance, Histopathology and First Molecular Characterisation. Vet. Rec. 2020, 15, 186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Zuo, S.; Sørensen, S.R.; Kania, P.W.; Buchmann, K. Sarcocystis rileyi (Apicomplexa) in Anas platyrhynchos in Europe with a Potential for Spread. Int. J. Parasitol. Parasites Wildl. 2021, 15, 270–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Gower, C. A New Host and Locality Record for Sarcocystis rileyi (Stiles, 1803). J. Parasitol. 1938, 24, 378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Erickson, A.B. Sarcocystis in Birds. Auk 1940, 57, 514–519. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Wichware, A.B. Sarcosporidiosis in a Black Duck. Can. J. Comp. Med. 1944, 8, 15–17. [Google Scholar]
  26. Cornwell, G. New Waterfowl Host Records for Sarcocystis rileyi and a Review of Sarcosporidiosis in Birds. Avian Dis. 1963, 7, 212–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  27. Chabreck, R.H. Sarcosporidiosis in Ducks in Louisiana. Trans. North Am. Wildl. Conf. 1965, 30, 174–184. [Google Scholar]
  28. Hoppe, D.M. Prevalence of Macroscopically Detectable Sarcocystis in North Dakota ducks. J. Wildl. Dis. 1976, 12, 27–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Broderson, D.; Canaris, A.G.; Bristol, J.R. Parasites of Waterfowl from Southwest Texas: II. The Shoveler, Anas clypeata. J. Wildl. Dis. 1977, 13, 435–439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  30. Drouin, T.E.; Mahrt, J.L. The Prevalence of Sarcocystis Lankester, 1882, in some Bird Species in Western Canada, with Notes on its Life Cycle. Can. J. Zool. 1979, 57, 1915–1921. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  31. Canaris, A.G.; Mena, A.C.; Bristol, J.R. Parasites of Waterfowl from Southwest Texas: III. The Green-Winged Teal, Anas crecca. J. Wildl. Dis. 1981, 17, 57–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Costanzo, G.R. Sarcocystis in American Black Ducks Wintering in New Jersey. J. Wildl. Dis. 1990, 26, 387–389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Moorman, T.E.; Baldassarre, G.A.; Richard, D.M. The Frequency of Sarcocystis spp. and its Effect on Winter Carcass Composition of Mottled Ducks. J. Wildl. Dis. 1991, 27, 491–493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Fedynich, A.M.; Pence, D.B. Sarcocystis in Mallards on the Southern High Plains of Texas. Avian Dis. 1992, 36, 1067–1069. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Hermanovská, L.; Čurlíl, J.; Hurníková, Z.; Brunčák, J.; Oberhauserová, K.; Dvorožňáková, E. Sarcocystosis of Mallards in Slovak Respublic. Folia Vet. 2013, 57, 45–48. [Google Scholar]
  36. Gjerde, B. Molecular Characterisation of Sarcocystis rileyi from a Common eider (Somateria mollissima) in Norway. Parasitol. Res. 2014, 113, 3501–3509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  37. Cawthorn, R.J.; Rainnie, D.; Wobeser, G. Experimental Transmission of Sarcocystis sp. (Protozoa: Sarcocystidae) between the Shoveler (Anas clypeata) Duck and the Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis). J. Wildl. Dis. 1981, 17, 389–394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Wicht, R.J. Transmission of Sarcocystis rileyi to the Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis). J. Wildl. Dis. 1981, 17, 387–388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M. Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, 3rd ed.; Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, MD, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
  40. Moré, G.; Maksimov, A.; Conraths, F.J.; Schares, G. Molecular Identification of Sarcocystis spp. in Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and Raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) from Germany. Vet. Parasitol. 2016, 220, 9–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Prakas, P.; Liaugaudaitė, S.; Kutkienė, L.; Sruoga, A.; Švažas, S. Molecular Identification of Sarcocystis rileyi Sporocysts in Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) in Lithuania. Parasitol. Res. 2015, 114, 1671–1676. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Prakas, P.; Moskaliova, D.; Šneideris, D.; Juozaitytė-Ngugu, E.; Maziliauskaitė, E.; Švažas, S.; Butkauskas, D. Molecular Identification of Sarcocystis rileyi and Sarcocystis sp. (Closely Related to Sarcocystis wenzeli) in Intestines of Mustelids from Lithuania. Animals 2023, 13, 467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Prakas, P.; Butkauskas, D.; Švažas, S.; Stanevičius, V. Morphological and Genetic Characterisation of Sarcocystis halieti from the Great Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo). Parasitol. Res. 2018, 117, 3663–3667. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  44. Kirillova, V.; Prakas, P.; Calero-Bernal, R.; Gavarāne, I.; Fernández-García, J.L.; Martínez-González, M.; Rudaitytė-Lukošienė, E.; Martínez-Estéllez, M.Á.H.; Butkauskas, D.; Kirjušina, M. Identification and Genetic Characterization of Sarcocystis arctica and Sarcocystis lutrae in Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Baltic States and Spain. Parasit. Vectors 2018, 11, 173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Altschul, S.F.; Madden, T.L.; Schäffer, A.A.; Zhang, J.; Zhang, Z.; Miller, W.; Lipman, D.J. Gapped BLAST and PSI-BLAST: A New Generation of Protein Database Search Programs. Nucleic Acids Res. 1997, 17, 3389–3402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  46. Reiczigel, J. Confidence Intervals for the Binomial Parameter: Some New Considerations. Stat. Med. 2003, 22, 611–621. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  47. Reiczigel, J.; Abonyi-Tóth, Z.; Singer, J. An Exact Confidence Set for two Binomial Proportions and Exact Unconditional Confidence Intervals for the Difference and Ratio of Proportions. Comput. Stat. Data Anal. 2008, 52, 5046–5053. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Rózsa, L.; Reiczigel, J.; Majoros, G. Quantifying Parasites in Samples of Hosts. J. Parasitol. 2000, 86, 228–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  49. El-Morsey, A.; El-Seify, M.; Desouky, A.R.; Abdel-Aziz, M.M.; El-Dakhly, K.M.; Kasem, S.; Abdo, W.; Haridy, M.; Sakai, H.; Yanai, T. Morphologic and Molecular Characteristics of Sarcocystis atraii n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Sarcocystidae) infecting the Common Coot (Fulica atra) from Egypt. Acta Parasitol. 2015, 60, 691–699. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Pan, J.; Ma, C.; Huang, Z.; Ye, Y.; Zeng, H.; Deng, S.; Hu, J.; Tao, J. Morphological and Molecular Characterization of Sarcocystis wenzeli in Chickens (Gallus gallus) in China. Parasit. Vectors 2020, 13, 512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Stiles, C.W. On the presence of sarcosporidia in birds. USDA Bureau Anim. Ind. Bull. 1893, 3, 79–89. [Google Scholar]
  52. Dylko, N.I. Distribution of Sarcosporidia among Wild Vertebrates in Belorussia. Dokl. Akad. Nauk BSSR 1962, 6, 399–400. [Google Scholar]
  53. Golubkov, V.I. Infection of the Dog and Cat with Sarcocysts from the Chicken and Duck. Veterinariya 1979, 1, 55–56. [Google Scholar]
  54. Prakas, P.; Butkauskas, D.; Juozaitytė-Ngugu, E. Molecular Identification of four Sarcocystis Species in the Herring Gull, Larus argentatus, from Lithuania. Parasit. Vectors 2020, 13, 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Lee, F.C.H.; Muthu, V. From 18S to 28S rRNA Gene: An Improved Targeted Sarcocystidae PCR Amplification, Species Identification with Long DNA Sequences. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2021, 104, 1388–1393. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Prakas, P.; Butkauskas, D.; Juozaitytė-Ngugu, E. Molecular and Morphological Description of Sarcocystis kutkienae sp. nov. from the Common Raven (Corvus corax). Parasitol. Res. 2020, 119, 4205–4210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Šukytė, T.; Butkauskas, D.; Juozaitytė-Ngugu, E.; Švažas, S.; Prakas, P. Molecular Confirmation of Accipiter Birds of Prey as Definitive Hosts of Numerous Sarcocystis Species, including Sarcocystis sp., Closely Related to Pathogenic S. calchasi. Pathogens 2023, 12, 752. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  58. Juozaitytė-Ngugu, E.; Prakas, P. The Richness of Sarcocystis Species in the Common Gull (Larus canus) and Black-Headed Gull (Larus ridibundus) from Lithuania. Parasitologia 2023, 3, 172–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Gondim, L.F.P.; Soares, R.M.; Tavares, A.S.; Borges-Silva, W.; de Jesus, R.F.; Llano, H.A.B.; Gondim, L.Q. Sarcocystis falcatula-like derived from Opossum in Northeastern Brazil: In Vitro Propagation in Avian Cells, Molecular Characterization and Bioassay in Birds. Int. J. Parasitol. Parasites Wildl. 2019, 10, 132–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Llano, H.A.B.; Zavatieri Polato, H.; Borges Keid, L.; Ferreira de Souza Oliveira, T.M.; Zwarg, T.; de Oliveira, A.S.; Sanches, T.C.; Joppert, A.M.; Gondim, L.F.P.; Martins Soares, R. Molecular screening for Sarcocystidae in Muscles of Wild Birds from Brazil suggests a Plethora of Intermediate Hosts for Sarcocystis falcatula. Int. J. Parasitol. Parasites Wildl. 2022, 17, 230–238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Sato, A.P.; da Silva, T.C.E.; de Pontes, T.P.; Sanches, A.W.D.; Prakas, P.; Locatelli-Dittrich, R. Molecular Characterization of Sarcocystis spp. in Seabirds from Southern Brazil. Parasitol. Int. 2022, 90, 102595. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  62. Kutkienė, L.; Sruoga, A. Sarcocystis spp. in Birds of the Order Anseriformes. Parasitol. Res. 2004, 92, 171–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Munday, B.L.; Hartley, W.J.; Harrigan, K.E.; Presidente, P.J.; Obendorf, D.L. Sarcocystis and related organisms in Australian wildlife: II. Survey findings in birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish. J. Wildl. Dis. 1979, 15, 57–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Pak, S.M.; Eshtokina, V.N. Sarcosporidians of Birds. In Sarcosporidians of Animals in Kazakhstan; Panin, J.V., Ed.; Nauka: Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan, 1984. [Google Scholar]
  65. Hirschfeld, A.; Heyd, A. Mortality of Migratory Birds caused by Hunting in Europe: Bag Statistics and Proposals for the Conservation of Birds and Animal Welfare. Berichte Vogelschutz 2005, 42, 47–74. [Google Scholar]
  66. Wetlands International. Waterbird Population Estimates. 2020. Available online: www.wpe.wetlands.org (accessed on 7 April 2023).
  67. Bright, P.W. Lessons from Lean Beasts: Conservation Biology of the Mustelids. Mamm. Rev. 2000, 30, 217–226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Zschille, J.; Stier, N.; Roth, M.; Mayer, R. Feeding Habits of Invasive American mink (Neovison vison) in Northern Germany—Potential Implications for Fishery and Waterfowl. Acta Theriol. 2013, 59, 25–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Švažas, S.; Meissner, W.; Serebryakov, V.; Kozulin, A.; Grishanov, G. Changes of Wintering Sites of Waterfowl in Central and Eastern Europe; OMPO Vilnius & Institute of Ecology: Vilnius, Lithuania, 2001. [Google Scholar]
  70. Švažas, S.; Kozulin, A. Waterbirds of Large Fishponds of Belarus and Lithuania; OMPO Vilnius & Institute of Ecology: Vilnius, Lithuania, 2002. [Google Scholar]
  71. Viksne, J.; Švažas, S.; Czajkowski, A.; Janaus, M.; Mischenko, A.; Kozulin, A.; Kuresoo, A.; Serebryakov, V. Atlas of Duck Populations in Europe; Akstis Press: Vilnius, Lithuania, 2010. [Google Scholar]
  72. Tuggle, B.N. Sarcocystis. In Field Guide to Wildlife Diseases-General Field Procedures and Diseases of Migratory Birds; Friend, M., Ed.; Resource Publication 167; United States Fish and Wildlife Service: Washington, DC, USA, 1987. [Google Scholar]
  73. Andrew, R.; Newman, P.P. Sarcosporidiosis. J. La. State Med. Soc. 1961, 113, 224–226. [Google Scholar]
  74. Keawcharoen, J.; Van Riel, D.; Van Amerongen, G.; Bestebroer, T.; Beyer, W.; Van Lavieren, R.; Osterhaus, A.; Fouchier, R.; Kuiken, T. Wild Ducks as Long-Distance Vectors of highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus (H5N1). Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2008, 14, 600–607. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  75. Söderquist, P. Large-Scale Releases of Native Species: The Mallard as a Predictive Model System. Ph.D. Thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden, 2015. [Google Scholar]
Animals 13 02875 g001
Figure 1. Different parasite loads of macrocysts of Sarcocystis in Mallard carcasses. Images are ordered by the size of the parasite load, from highest to lowest. The scale shows the size of macrocysts in mm.
Figure 1. Different parasite loads of macrocysts of Sarcocystis in Mallard carcasses. Images are ordered by the size of the parasite load, from highest to lowest. The scale shows the size of macrocysts in mm.
Animals 13 02875 g001
Animals 13 02875 g002
Figure 2. Prevalence of macrocysts in Mallards collected in Lithuania in August–December 2011–2014 and 2017–2022. Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals. n shows the size of the sample in each analyzed year.
Figure 2. Prevalence of macrocysts in Mallards collected in Lithuania in August–December 2011–2014 and 2017–2022. Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals. n shows the size of the sample in each analyzed year.
Animals 13 02875 g002
Animals 13 02875 g003
Figure 3. Monthly prevalence of macrocysts infection in Mallards in Lithuania from August to December. Dots represent the percentage infection rates. Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals of prevalence. n indicates the sample size in the months studied.
Figure 3. Monthly prevalence of macrocysts infection in Mallards in Lithuania from August to December. Dots represent the percentage infection rates. Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals of prevalence. n indicates the sample size in the months studied.
Animals 13 02875 g003
Table 1. The prevalence of macrocysts in examined Mallards collected in four countries in 2012–2014.
Table 1. The prevalence of macrocysts in examined Mallards collected in four countries in 2012–2014.
Year LithuaniaKaliningrad Region (Russia)Belarus Latvia
20122/158 (1.3%) b,e10/107 (9.4%) c,f6/72 (8.3%) g3/98 (3.1%)
20131/21 (4.8%)2/74 (2.7%)5/62 (8.1%)
20149/66 (13.6%) a,h4/138 (2.9%) d,i1/68 (1.5%) j
Overall12/245 (4.9%)16/319 (5.0%)12/202 (5.9%)3/98 (3.1%)
The statistically significant p values (p < 0.05) obtained by comparing the prevalence of macrocysts in four countries in different years are given below. a > b p < 0.001; c > d p = 0.034; f > e p = 0.002; g > e p = 0.010; h > i p = 0.005; h > j p = 0.008.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Prakas, P.; Stankevičiūtė, J.; Švažas, S.; Juozaitytė-Ngugu, E.; Butkauskas, D.; Vaitkevičiūtė-Balčė, R. Sarcocystis spp. Macrocysts Infection in Wildfowl Species in Eastern Baltic Region: Trends in Prevalence in 2011–2022. Animals 2023, 13, 2875. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13182875

AMA Style

Prakas P, Stankevičiūtė J, Švažas S, Juozaitytė-Ngugu E, Butkauskas D, Vaitkevičiūtė-Balčė R. Sarcocystis spp. Macrocysts Infection in Wildfowl Species in Eastern Baltic Region: Trends in Prevalence in 2011–2022. Animals. 2023; 13(18):2875. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13182875

Chicago/Turabian Style

Prakas, Petras, Jolanta Stankevičiūtė, Saulius Švažas, Evelina Juozaitytė-Ngugu, Dalius Butkauskas, and Rasa Vaitkevičiūtė-Balčė. 2023. "Sarcocystis spp. Macrocysts Infection in Wildfowl Species in Eastern Baltic Region: Trends in Prevalence in 2011–2022" Animals 13, no. 18: 2875. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13182875

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop