Attachment to Pets Moderates Transitions in Latent Patterns of Mental Health Following the Onset of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Results of a Survey of U.S. Adults
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
1.1. Animal Companions and the COVID-19 Pandemic
1.2. Person-Centered Approaches to Examining Relations between Mental Health and HAI
1.3. Current Study
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Indicators of Mental Health
2.2.2. Attachment to Dogs and Cats
2.2.3. Covariates
2.3. Analytic Plan
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Statistics
3.2. Latent Profile Analyses
3.3. Latent Transition Analysis
4. Discussion
4.1. Limitations
4.2. Future Directions
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable Name | Variable Categories | Frequency (%) |
---|---|---|
Race/Ethnicity | Arab/Arab American | 2 (0.1) |
Asian/Asian American | 42 (2.2) | |
Black/African American | 15 (0.8) | |
First Nations/Indigenous | 3 (0.2) | |
Latino/Latina/Latinx | 50 (2.6) | |
South Asian/Pacific Islander | 7 (0.4) | |
White | 1702 (87.6) | |
Multiracial/Mixed Race | 111 (5.7) | |
Prefer to self-describe | 10 (0.5) | |
Gender Identity | Cisgender female/woman | 1743 (89.8) |
Cisgender male/man | 137 (7.0) | |
Genderqueer/gender non-conforming | 21 (1.1) | |
Transgender female/woman | 2 (0.1) | |
Transgender male/man | 9 (0.5) | |
Multiple Identities | 27 (1.4) | |
Missing | 5 (0.3) | |
Sexual Orientation | Asexual | 25 (1.3) |
Bisexual | 157 (8.1) | |
Demisexual | 11 (0.6) | |
Gay | 21 (1.1) | |
Heterosexual/straight | 1510 (77.8) | |
Lesbian | 50 (2.6) | |
Pansexual | 27 (1.4) | |
Queer | 29 (1.5) | |
Two-Spirit | 1 (0.1) | |
Prefer to self-describe | 6 (0.3) | |
Multiple identities | 83 (4.3) | |
Not sure/questioning | 22 (1.1) | |
Employment Change | Begun new job | 13 (0.7) |
Laid off or fired | 121 (6.2) | |
No change | 680 (35.0) | |
Working from home | 692 (35.6) | |
Other change | 194 (10.0) | |
Multiple options selected | 242 (12.5) | |
Pet Type—Owned 1 | Bird(s) | 70 (3.6) |
Cat(s) | 1029 (53.0) | |
Dog(s) | 1442 (74.3) | |
Fish | 155 (8) | |
Horse(s) | 54 (2.8) | |
Small mammal(s) (e.g., rat, hedgehog, rabbit) | 68 (3.5) | |
Reptile(s) (e.g., snake, lizard, turtle) | 109 (5.6) | |
Other pet(s) (e.g., cow, goat, spider, chicken) | 49 (2.5) | |
Pet Type—Favorite | Cat | 667 (34.3) |
Dog | 1275 (65.7) |
Variable | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Age | -- | |||||||||||||||||
2. Attachment to Pet | −0.09 | -- | ||||||||||||||||
3. Anxiety (T1) | −0.26 | 0.09 | -- | |||||||||||||||
4. Depression (T1) | −0.24 | 0.09 | 0.62 | -- | ||||||||||||||
5. Hostility (T1) | −0.22 | 0.09 | 0.51 | 0.52 | -- | |||||||||||||
6. Interpersonal Sensitivity (T1) | −0.30 | 0.09 | 0.61 | 0.68 | 0.52 | -- | ||||||||||||
7. Obsessive-Compulsive (T1) | −0.26 | 0.08 | 0.62 | 0.64 | 0.52 | 0.62 | -- | |||||||||||
8. Phobic Anxiety (T1) | −0.21 | 0.12 | 0.50 | 0.48 | 0.37 | 0.50 | 0.47 | -- | ||||||||||
9. Somatization (T1) | −0.08 | 0.08 | 0.46 | 0.43 | 0.37 | 0.40 | 0.47 | 0.35 | -- | |||||||||
10. Additional Items (T1) | −0.10 | 0.07 | 0.50 | 0.53 | 0.36 | 0.47 | 0.54 | 0.38 | 0.43 | -- | ||||||||
11. Anxiety (T2) | −0.24 | 0.09 | 0.62 | 0.46 | 0.34 | 0.45 | 0.43 | 0.39 | 0.34 | 0.37 | -- | |||||||
12. Depression (T2) | −0.30 | 0.09 | 0.50 | 0.68 | 0.38 | 0.54 | 0.47 | 0.38 | 0.34 | 0.41 | 0.66 | -- | ||||||
13. Hostility (T2) | −0.27 | 0.06 | 0.41 | 0.41 | 0.56 | 0.40 | 0.38 | 0.29 | 0.26 | 0.29 | 0.52 | 0.53 | -- | |||||
14. Interpersonal Sensitivity (T2) | −0.28 | 0.13 | 0.47 | 0.55 | 0.40 | 0.73 | 0.49 | 0.42 | 0.34 | 0.38 | 0.52 | 0.63 | 0.49 | -- | ||||
15. Obsessive-Compulsive (T2) | −0.31 | 0.07 | 0.53 | 0.53 | 0.40 | 0.50 | 0.69 | 0.39 | 0.36 | 0.45 | 0.60 | 0.65 | 0.51 | 0.55 | -- | |||
16. Phobic Anxiety (T2) | −0.12 | 0.07 | 0.34 | 0.28 | 0.23 | 0.31 | 0.28 | 0.42 | 0.20 | 0.26 | 0.55 | 0.46 | 0.30 | 0.36 | 0.41 | -- | ||
17. Somatization (T2) | −0.08 | 0.08 | 0.38 | 0.37 | 0.29 | 0.34 | 0.37 | 0.30 | 0.68 | 0.33 | 0.48 | 0.46 | 0.34 | 0.39 | 0.44 | 0.31 | -- | |
18. Additional Items (T2) | −0.18 | 0.06 | 0.44 | 0.45 | 0.30 | 0.41 | 0.44 | 0.34 | 0.33 | 0.64 | 0.57 | 0.60 | 0.43 | 0.46 | 0.57 | 0.41 | 0.42 | -- |
Mean | 39.68 | 79.93 | 1.24 | 1.29 | 1.26 | 1.32 | 1.42 | 0.89 | 0.96 | 1.38 | 1.46 | 1.58 | 1.30 | 1.11 | 1.64 | 1.73 | 1.01 | 1.67 |
Standard Deviation | 13.61 | 9.08 | 0.77 | 0.87 | 0.76 | 0.92 | 0.77 | 0.92 | 0.80 | 0.87 | 0.88 | 0.95 | 0.88 | 0.99 | 0.90 | 1.21 | 0.88 | 0.91 |
Variance/Covariance Structure | k | Par | LL | AIC | BIC | aBIC | VLMR-LRT | LMR-LRT | BLRT | Entropy | Smallest Class | Condition # | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
p-Value | p-Value | p-Value | n | % | |||||||||
Non-Diagonal, Class Invariant | 1 | 44 | −16,322.3 | 32,732.5 | 32,979.4 | 32,839.7 | NA | NA | NA | NA | 2021 | 100% | 2.55 × 10−3 |
2 | 53 | −16,194.0 | 32,494.0 | 32,791.4 | 32,623.0 | 0.429 | 0.432 | 0.000 | 0.841 | 241 | 12% | 4.10 × 10−4 | |
3 | 62 | −15,886.7 | 31,897.4 | 32,245.3 | 32,048.3 | 0.006 | 0.007 | 0.000 | 0.970 | 269 | 13% | 1.74 × 10−10 | |
4 | 71 | −15,177.5 | 30,496.9 | 30,895.3 | 30,669.8 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.984 | 115 | 6% | 2.73 × 10−10 | |
Diagonal, Class Invariant | 1 | 16 | −20,027.8 | 40,087.5 | 40,177.3 | 40,126.5 | NA | NA | NA | NA | 2021 | 100% | 3.63 × 10−2 |
2 | 25 | −17,758.9 | 35,567.8 | 35,708.0 | 35,628.6 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.888 | 482 | 24% | 1.92 × 10−2 | |
3 | 34 | −16,789.1 | 33,646.2 | 33,837.0 | 33,728.9 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.855 | 286 | 14% | 5.04 × 10−3 | |
4 | 43 | −16,438.3 | 32,962.7 | 33,204.0 | 33,067.3 | 0.021 | 0.022 | 0.000 | 0.846 | 150 | 7% | 1.33 × 10−3 | |
5 | 52 | −16,277.8 | 32,659.5 | 32,951.3 | 32,786.1 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.809 | 91 | 5% | 5.41 × 10−4 | |
6 | 61 | −16,221.7 | 325,65.3 | 32,907.6 | 32,713.8 | 0.318 | 0.325 | 0.000 | 0.826 | 95 | 5% | 2.77 × 10−6 | |
Diagonal, Class Varying | 1 | 16 | −20,027.8 | 40,087.5 | 40,177.3 | 40,126.5 | NA | NA | NA | NA | 2021 | 100% | 3.63 × 10−2 |
2 | 33 | −17,582.1 | 35,230.3 | 35,415.5 | 35,310.6 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.848 | 640 | 32% | 1.21 × 10−2 | |
3 | 50 | −16,349.1 | 32,798.2 | 33,078.8 | 32,920.0 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.860 | 528 | 26% | 3.14 × 10−3 | |
Non-Diagonal, Class Varying | 1 | 44 | −16,322.3 | 32,732.5 | 32,979.4 | 32,839.7 | NA | NA | NA | NA | 2021 | 100% | 2.55 × 10−3 |
2 | 89 | −15,748.0 | 31,674.0 | 32,173.4 | 31,890.6 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.567 | 872 | 43% | 3.82 × 10−4 | |
3 | 134 | −15,646.4 | 31,560.9 | 32,312.8 | 31,887.1 | 0.107 | 0.108 | 0.000 | 0.700 | 111 | 5% | 8.12 × 10−5 |
Variance/Covariance Structure | k | Par | LL | AIC | BIC | aBIC | VLMR-LRT | LMR-LRT | BLRT | Entropy | Smallest Class | Condition # | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
p-Value | p-Value | p-Value | n | % | |||||||||
Non-Diagonal, Class Invariant | 1 | 44 | −18,177.9 | 36,443.8 | 36,690.2 | 36,550.4 | NA | NA | NA | NA | 2000 | 100% | 1.88 × 10−3 |
2 | 53 | −18,064.4 | 36,234.8 | 36,531.6 | 36,363.3 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.779 | 317 | 16% | 1.56 × 10−3 | |
3 | 62 | −17,873.2 | 35,870.4 | 36,217.6 | 36,020.7 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.000 | 0.952 | 181 | 9% | 4.88 × 10−9 | |
4 | 71 | −17,449.5 | 35,040.9 | 35,438.6 | 35,213.0 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.971 | 169 | 8% | 9.40 × 10−12 | |
5 | 80 | −17,340.4 | 34,840.8 | 35,288.9 | 35,034.7 | 0.027 | 0.028 | 0.000 | 0.956 | 42 | 2% | 6.72 × 10−14 | |
6 | 89 | −17,101.6 | 34,381.3 | 34,879.8 | 34,597.0 | 0.210 | 0.214 | 0.000 | 0.977 | 12 | 1% | 7.31 × 10−16 | |
Diagonal, Class Invariant | 1 | 16 | −21,822.8 | 43,677.6 | 43,767.2 | 43,716.4 | NA | NA | NA | NA | 2000 | 100% | 1.73 × 10−2 |
2 | 25 | −19,516.7 | 39,083.4 | 39,223.5 | 39,144.0 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.860 | 672 | 34% | 3.46 × 10−2 | |
3 | 34 | −18,651.1 | 37,370.3 | 37,560.7 | 37,452.7 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.844 | 267 | 13% | 9.08 × 10−3 | |
4 | 43 | −18,309.1 | 36,704.3 | 36,945.1 | 36,808.5 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.833 | 198 | 10% | 2.62 × 10−3 | |
5 | 52 | −18,203.7 | 36,511.5 | 36,802.7 | 36,637.5 | 0.036 | 0.037 | 0.000 | 0.823 | 80 | 4% | 6.78 × 10−4 | |
6 | 61 | −18,122.4 | 36,366.9 | 36,708.5 | 36,514.7 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.000 | 0.796 | 77 | 4% | 5.03 × 10−4 | |
7 | 70 | −18,034.2 | 36,208.5 | 36,600.5 | 36,378.1 | 0.412 | 0.418 | 0.000 | 0.861 | 92 | 4.6% | 2.77 × 10−6 | |
Diagonal, Class Varying | 1 | 16 | −21,822.8 | 43,677.6 | 43,767.2 | 43,716.4 | NA | NA | NA | NA | 2000 | 100% | 1.73 × 10−2 |
2 | 33 | −19,350.8 | 38,767.6 | 38,952.4 | 38,847.6 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.846 | 820 | 41% | 2.14 × 10−2 | |
3 | 50 | −18,510.2 | 37,120.4 | 37,400.5 | 37,241.6 | 0.020 | 0.021 | 0.000 | 0.841 | 310 | 16% | 8.48 × 10−3 | |
Non-Diagonal, Class Varying | 1 | 44 | −18,177.9 | 36,443.8 | 36,690.2 | 36,550.4 | NA | NA | NA | NA | 2000 | 100% | 1.88 × 10−3 |
Post-COVID | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low Symptoms (12%) | Mild Symptoms (42%) | Moderate Symptoms (32%) | High Symptoms (11%) | Severe Symptoms (4%) | ||
Pre-COVID | Transition probabilities | |||||
Low symptoms (12%) | 0.67 | 0.23 | 0.08 | 0.03 | 0.00 | |
Mild symptoms (39%) | 0.02 | 0.81 | 0.14 | 0.03 | 0.00 | |
Moderate symptoms (33%) | 0.00 | 0.09 | 0.79 | 0.12 | 0.01 | |
High symptoms (11%) | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.23 | 0.70 | 0.03 | |
Severe symptoms (5%) | 0.01 | 0.06 | 0.20 | 0.34 | 0.39 | |
Transition proportions (%) | ||||||
Low symptoms (12%) | 10.14% | 1.34% | 0.36% | 0.05% | 0.00% | |
Mild symptoms (39%) | 1.85% | 33.52% | 3.50% | 0.77% | 0.26% | |
Moderate symptoms (33%) | 0.26% | 3.50% | 25.49% | 3.30% | 0.36% | |
High symptoms (11%) | 0.00% | 0.46% | 2.21% | 7.11% | 0.82% | |
Severe symptoms (5%) | 0.05% | 0.21% | 0.57% | 0.88% | 2.99% | |
Attachment to pets (X2) | ||||||
Low symptoms (12%) | a | −0.87 | 0.35 | 16.06 b | 0.26 b | |
Mild symptoms (39%) | a | −0.21 | −0.23 | 18.52 | 0.79 | |
Moderate symptoms (33%) | a | −12.51 *** | −13.18 *** | −13.35 *** | −12.02 *** | |
High symptoms (11%) | a | −5.34 b | −4.13 *** | −4.79 *** | −5.76 *** | |
Severe symptoms (5%) | a | −22.29 b | −22.83 *** | −22.58 *** | −21.37 *** |
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McDonald, S.E.; O’Connor, K.E.; Matijczak, A.; Tomlinson, C.A.; Applebaum, J.W.; Murphy, J.L.; Zsembik, B.A. Attachment to Pets Moderates Transitions in Latent Patterns of Mental Health Following the Onset of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Results of a Survey of U.S. Adults. Animals 2021, 11, 895. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11030895
McDonald SE, O’Connor KE, Matijczak A, Tomlinson CA, Applebaum JW, Murphy JL, Zsembik BA. Attachment to Pets Moderates Transitions in Latent Patterns of Mental Health Following the Onset of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Results of a Survey of U.S. Adults. Animals. 2021; 11(3):895. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11030895
Chicago/Turabian StyleMcDonald, Shelby E., Kelly E. O’Connor, Angela Matijczak, Camie A. Tomlinson, Jennifer W. Applebaum, Jennifer L. Murphy, and Barbara A. Zsembik. 2021. "Attachment to Pets Moderates Transitions in Latent Patterns of Mental Health Following the Onset of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Results of a Survey of U.S. Adults" Animals 11, no. 3: 895. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11030895