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Article

Clinical and Epidemiological Characteristics of Staphylococcus caprae Infections in Catalonia, Spain

by
Javier Díez de los Ríos
1,2,3,4,5,*,
María Navarro
6,
Judit Serra-Pladevall
5,6,7,
Sònia Molinos
8,
Emma Puigoriol
9,
Noemi Párraga-Niño
10,
Glòria Pedemonte-Parramón
11,
Luisa Pedro-Botet
2,
Óscar Mascaró
1,4 and
Esteban Reynaga
2,12,*
1
Internal Medicine Department, Multidisciplinary Inflammation Research Group, Hospital Universitari de Vic, 08500 Vic, Spain
2
Fundació Lluita Contra les Infeccions, Infectious Diseases Department, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol, Carretera Canyet, 08916 Badalona, Spain
3
Escola de Doctorat, Universitat de Vic–Universitat Central de Catalunya (UVIC–UCC), 08500 Vic, Spain
4
Faculty of Medicine, Universitat de Vic–Universitat Central de Catalunya (UVIC–UCC), 08500 Vic, Spain
5
Fundació Institut de Recerca i Innovació en Ciències de la Vida i de la Salut de la Catalunya Central, 08500 Vic, Spain
6
Microbiology Department, Multidisciplinary Inflammation Research Group, Hospital Universitari de Vic, 08500 Vic, Spain
7
Faculty of Health Sciences, Universitat de Vic–Universitat Central de Catalunya (UVIC–UCC), 08500 Vic, Spain
8
Microbiology Department, Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol, 08916 Badalona, Spain
9
Epidemiology Department, Multidisciplinary Inflammation Research Group, Hospital Universitari de Vic, 08500 Vic, Spain
10
Infectious Diseases Unit, Fundació Institut d’Investigació Germans Trias i Pujol, 08916 Badalona, Spain
11
Orthopaedic Surgery and Traumatology Department, Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol, 08916 Badalona, Spain
12
Infectious Diseases Unit, Health Sciences Research Institute of the Germans Trias i Pujol Foundation, 08916 Badalona, Spain
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Microorganisms 2025, 13(1), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms13010053
Submission received: 6 December 2024 / Revised: 26 December 2024 / Accepted: 30 December 2024 / Published: 1 January 2025
(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Public Health Microbiology)

Abstract

:
Staphylococcus caprae is a coagulase-negative staphylococcus commonly associated with animals which can also be a zoonotic human pathogen. To date, there is little data available on S. caprae infections. The aim of this study was to characterize the S. caprae infections identified in two hospitals located, respectively, in rural and urban areas of Catalonia, Spain. In this retrospective, observational study, data were compiled from clinical records of all S. caprae infections diagnosed between January 2010 and December 2023. Over the study period, altogether 31 cases of S. caprae infection were identified, with most (23) of these cases occurring in the second half of the period (2017–2023). The mean age of patients was 58.87 ± 20.65 years, and 58.1% were males. Eight patients had had livestock exposure. The most frequent manifestation of infection was skin and soft subcutaneous tissue infections (10; 32.3%), osteomyelitis (6; 19.4%), and joint prosthetic infections (5; 16.1%). All the strains were susceptible to oxacillin, fluoroquinolones, rifampicin, and trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole. Twenty-two (71%) of the patients required surgical treatment. Only one patient (3.2%) died, because of aortic prosthetic valve infective endocarditis. Skin and soft tissue infections were the most frequently identified manifestations of S. caprae infection. Over 75% of the cases occurred in the last six years, and 25.8% involved significant exposure to livestock. Ongoing surveillance is necessary to better understand the prevalence and transmission dynamics of this emerging zoonotic pathogen.

1. Introduction

Staphylococcus caprae is an animal-associated coagulase-negative staphylococcus [1] that characteristically colonizes the skin and mammary glands of goats [2]. It was first described by Devriese et al. in 1983 [3], based on a strain isolated from goat’s milk [4], and has also recently been isolated from sheep’s milk samples [5].
In humans, S. caprae may present as a harmless commensal in the nose, skin, and nails [2]. However, it can also become zoonotic and has been isolated from patients who have been in close contact with goats or sheep, such as farm workers or sheep breeders, and individuals bitten by goats [1]. Other risk factors for acquiring the infection are immunosuppression, obesity, open bone fractures, or tissue trauma.
The mechanisms responsible for the development of S. caprae infection remain largely unknown. Watanabe et al. (2018) performed complete genome sequences of three methicillin-resistant S. caprae isolates from humans, revealing that S. caprae is closely related to S. epidermidis and S. capitis at the species level, especially in its ability to form biofilms, which may lead to increased virulence during the development of S. caprae infections [1].
Cases of S. caprae infections have been mainly reported in the following countries: France (n = 48), Spain (n = 16), Canada (n = 12), and USA (n = 11) followed to a lesser extent by Japan, Korea, and other European countries (see Supplementary Table S1, which includes cases of S. caprae infections reported between 1995–2023).
This microorganism has a special predilection for producing osteoarticular infections [6], and further involvement in cases of bacteremia [7], acute otitis externa [8], urinary tract infection, peritonitis [2], and infective endocarditis [9].
In the autonomous community of Catalonia, the goat and sheep industries are significant; nevertheless, to date, little data are available on S. caprae infections in Catalonia. The aim of the present study is to begin to fill this gap by characterizing the 31 cases of S. caprae infections that were diagnosed over a thirteen-year period at two hospitals in Catalonia, one located in a rural setting and the other in an urban one.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Description of the Study

A retrospective, observational study of S. caprae infections was carried out covering the period from January 2010 to December 2023 by examining all the records at the Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol (HGTiP) in Badalona, a city that forms part of the greater Barcelona metropolitan area, and the Hospital Universitari de Vic (HUV), located in the town of Vic, the administrative centre of a rural county. The hospitals serve 800,000 and 156,599 citizens, respectively (Figure 1).
S. caprae infection was defined by the isolation of this microorganism in a sample taken from a normally sterile site (blood, urine, synovial fluid, and bone), purulent discharge and orthopedic devices or catheter in a patient with signs and symptoms of infection.

2.2. Bacterial Identification and Antibiotic Susceptibility Testing

The microorganism was grown on blood agar plates incubated at 37 °C in a 5% CO2 atmosphere for 24–48 h, and bacterial identification was performed using the MALDI-TOF MS Bruker Biotyper (Billerica, MA, USA). The minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs; μg/mL) of each sample were determined using VITEK®2 (Biomerieux, Marcy-l’Étoile, France), the results were then interpreted in terms of antibiotic susceptibility in accordance with EUCAST clinical breakpoints. These diagnostic techniques have been applied in both hospitals since 2010.

2.3. Statistical Analysis

The descriptive statistics are as follows: Qualitative variables will be presented as absolute frequency and percentage and quantitative variables as mean, standard deviation, median, minimum, and maximum. The inferential statistics are as follows: χ2 (or Fisher’s exact test) was used to analyze the relationship between two variables and Student’s t-test (or a non-parametric Mann–Whitney U test) was used to analyze the relationship between a qualitative and a quantitative variable.

3. Results

A total of 31 cases of S. caprae infection were detected, 16 of them at the HUV and 15 at the HGTiP. Eight cases (25.8%) were detected in the 2010–2016 period and twenty-three (74.2%) in the 2017–2023 period.
The mean of age of the 31 patients was 58.87 ± 20.65 years and a majority were male (18; 58.1%). The mean Charlson Comorbidity Index score was 3.5 ± 3.4. Only one patient (3.2%) was under corticosteroid or other immunosuppressive treatment at the time of infection.
Eight patients had had direct or indirect exposure to livestock, of whom seven (43.8%) lived in the countryside (three had contact with goats, two worked in a slaughterhouse, one patient’s father worked in a slaughterhouse, and another patient’s brother had direct contact with goats), while one patient from an urban area had previously worked as a butcher.
The most frequent manifestation of infection was skin and soft subcutaneous tissue infection (10; 32.3%), osteomyelitis (6; 19.4% → 3 involving toes, 2 the calcaneus, and 1 the tibia), joint prosthesis infection (5; 16.1% → 1 involving hip prosthesis, 1 involving knee prosthesis, and 3 involving osteosynthesis material), bursitis (3; 9.7% → 2 involving elbow and 1 knee), prosthetic valve infective endocarditis (2; 6.5%), urinary tract infection (2; 6.5%), diabetic foot infection (1; 3.2%), tunnelled catheter for haemodialysis infection (1; 3.2%) and otitis media (1; 3.2%).
Most patients required surgical treatment (71%). Only one patient (3.2%) died, due to aortic prosthetic valve infective endocarditis.
Table 1 shows the clinical and epidemiological characteristics of the 31 cases of S. caprae infection.
Table 2 shows the summary of individual characteristics of the 31 patients diagnosed with S. caprae infection as well as the treatment prescribed.
All of the S. caprae strains isolated were susceptible to oxacillin, fluoroquinolones, rifampicin, and trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole, and 83.9% were susceptible to clindamycin, while only 16.1% were susceptible to penicillin.
Thirteen patients were treated with fluoroquinolones (two of them associated with rifampicin), six patients with amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, two patients with cloxacillin plus rifampicin, and trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole, clindamycin and linezolid were used for the remaining three patients, respectively. For seven patients, no information was available regarding the antibiotic treatment prescribed.
Figure 2 shows the difference in antibiotic resistance between rural and urban areas.

4. Discussion

Although there are almost 70,000 heads of goats registered in Catalonia, goat-farming is more prevalent in several other of the autonomous communities that make up Spain, such as Andalusia and Extremadura [10]. Nonetheless, very little research about S. caprae infections in Spain has been published [8,11,12]. Hence, the present study offers a description of a significant number of cases identified in two hospitals in Catalonia. The distribution of cases between the HUV and the HGTiP was relatively even, with a noticeable increase in the number of infections reported at both sites in the latter half of the study period (2017–2023) compared to the earlier half (2010–2016). This could be influenced by the increase in the number of surgeries in recent years as well as the awareness of surgeons to send representative samples for a correct microbiological diagnosis, suggesting that S. caprae is likely to become a more prevalent casual infectious agent in the near future.
S. caprae infections have been associated with direct or indirect contact with goats or sheep, and indeed in our study we found that seven patients (43.8%) from rural areas had had occupational or environmental exposure and one patient from an urban background had worked as a butcher. This is a higher percentage of cases than that reported in Seng et al. (2014), where 20% of patients in a hospital in south-eastern France were related to close contact with goats or sheep [2], with information about occupational exposure being absent in other reports [11,12,13].
The finding that, overall, 25.8% of patients had had direct or indirect exposure to livestock underscores the zoonotic potential of S. caprae. Such findings highlight the importance of considering occupational and environmental factors in the epidemiology of S. caprae infections, particularly in rural areas where human–animal interactions are more common.
Interestingly, we found that animal contact was predominantly reported among patients from the HUV, which serves a more rural catchment area, supporting the notion of distinct transmission dynamics between rural and urban settings. In urban areas, alternative transmission routes, such as through contaminated food products (i.e., unpasteurised dairy products or contaminated meat) or the environment (mainly in animal work areas, veterinary hospitals, animal clinics, or animal handling facilities, where the bacteria can survive on contaminated surfaces, such as cages, animal handling equipment or clothing, favouring transmission when people come into contact with these contaminated surfaces or utensils), should be considered. This warrants further investigation to elucidate the mechanisms of infection acquisition, particularly in urban populations.
Previous studies have mainly reported infections involving bone and joints such as prosthetic joint infection [2], osteomyelitis [11], septic arthritis [12], or spondylodiscitis [13]. Similarly, in our study more than 70% percent of cases involved skin and soft subcutaneous tissues, bones, bursa, diabetic feet, and prosthetic joints. Interestingly, we had two cases of infective endocarditis, one involving an aortic bioprosthesis and a mitral native valve and the other a pulmonary bioprosthesis, with only three similar cases reported previously. This distribution reflects the organism’s known propensity for causing biofilm-associated infections, particularly in patients with indwelling medical devices [9]. Seng et al. (2014) similarly identified prosthetic joint infections as a common presentation [2], emphasizing the challenges of managing biofilm-forming bacteria in clinical settings.
The antibiotic susceptibility patterns observed in this study, with high susceptibility to oxacillin, fluoroquinolones, rifampicin, and trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole, are consistent with previously reported data [14]. In contrast to S. epidermidis and S. haemolyticus with high percentages of methicillin-resistant isolates of both species [15], other clinically important coagulase-negative staphylococci are mostly less resistant to oxacillin, such as S. caprae, according previous studies [14,16,17,18,19]. The low susceptibility to penicillin (16.1%) reflects the typical resistance profile of coagulase-negative staphylococci, which often produce beta-lactamase enzymes. These findings highlight the importance of performing susceptibility testing to tailor antibiotic therapy and avoid the use of ineffective treatments. The preference for fluoroquinolones, often combined with rifampicin, as a treatment regimen reflects current best practise for managing biofilm-related infections [14].
The mortality related to S. caprae infections was very low, probably due to the average age of the patients coupled with optimal surgical and antibiotic treatment. Despite the severity of these infections, the study’s low mortality rate, with only one death reported due to prosthetic infective endocarditis, suggests that prompt and aggressive treatment can lead to favourable outcomes. These data are in line with previous studies where only two deaths were reported related to one clinical case of lumbar spondylodiscitis and another clinical case of mastoiditis [20,21].
The present study has several limitations, mainly due to its retrospective design. Therefore, to analyze genomic characteristics of S. caprae such as agrD sequence typing was not possible. The unavailability of some information about which antibiotic treatment was prescribed, the lack of uniformity in the duration of some antibiotic treatment prescribed by different specialists and the relatively short study period make it difficult to draw significant conclusions. Prospective studies with larger cohorts are needed to validate these results and provide more definitive conclusions about the epidemiology and management of S. caprae infection.

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, there are currently few studies describing S. caprae infections in Spain, despite a significant increase in the number of cases in recent years. In the data examined here, most patients from rural areas had had livestock exposure, while this was not the case for patients who lived in an urban setting, showing the importance of information about patients’ occupational field in any investigation of this issue. Skin or soft subcutaneous tissue infections and osteoarticular infections were the most prevalent manifestations of S. caprae infection in our series, and our data showed a low mortality rate. Ongoing surveillance and research are essential to improve our understanding of this emerging pathogen in order to optimize patient care.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/microorganisms13010053/s1, Supplementary Table S1. Diagnostic of 99 reported cases published between 1995–2023. References [2,4,6,7,8,9,11,12,13,14,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34] are cited in the Supplementary Materials.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.D.d.l.R. and E.R.; methodology, N.P.-N., J.S.-P., S.M., M.N. and E.P.; formal analysis, E.P.; investigation, J.D.d.l.R., G.P.-P. and E.R.; writing—original draft preparation, J.D.d.l.R. and E.R.; writing—review and editing, all authors; supervision, L.P.-B., Ó.M. and E.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study was carried out following the rules of the Declaration of Helsinki of 1975, which was revised in 2013 and was approved by the Ethics Committee of the HUV (#2022196; 11 April 2022).

Informed Consent Statement

All the participants were asked to provide informed and written consent to participate in this study.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article/Supplementary Material. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Acknowledgments

The preliminary results of this work were presented in part at the Congreso Nacional de la Sociedad Española de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica (SEIMC), Zaragoza, Spain, 30 May–1 June 2024 (e-Póster; presentation code 0757). We would like to thank Analía Treveset and Michael Kennedy-Scanlon for style-checking this manuscript and Silvia Díez de los Ríos González for her help with the design of Figure 1.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

USAUnited States of America
SEIMCSociedad Española de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica
S. capraeStaphylococcus caprae
S. epidermidisStaphylococcus epidermidis
S. capitisStaphylococcus capitis
HGTiPHospital Germans Trias i Pujol
HUVHospital Universitari de Vic
MALDI-TOF MSMatrix-assisted laser desorption-ionization time of flight mass spectrometry
MICsminimal inhibitory concentrations
EUCASTEuropean Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing

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Figure 1. Map of the administrative subdivisions of Catalonia, Spain, showing the locations of the Hospital Universitari de Vic (HUV) and Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol (HGTiP).
Figure 1. Map of the administrative subdivisions of Catalonia, Spain, showing the locations of the Hospital Universitari de Vic (HUV) and Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol (HGTiP).
Microorganisms 13 00053 g001
Figure 2. Difference in antibiotic resistance between isolates from two hospitals in a rural and urban area in Catalonia.
Figure 2. Difference in antibiotic resistance between isolates from two hospitals in a rural and urban area in Catalonia.
Microorganisms 13 00053 g002
Table 1. Clinical and epidemiological characteristics of patients with S. caprae infections at two hospitals in Catalonia.
Table 1. Clinical and epidemiological characteristics of patients with S. caprae infections at two hospitals in Catalonia.
CharacteristicsTotal
n = 31
HUV
n = 16 (51.6%)
HGTiP
n = 15 (48.4%)
p
Demographic
Age, mean ± DE58.87 ± 0.755.31 ± 2.462.67 ± 8.60.981
Male sex18 (58.1%)7 (43.8%)11 (73.3%)0.095
Period 0.002
2010–20168 (25.8%)8 (50.0%)0 (0)
2017–202323 (74.2%)8 (50.0%)15 (100)
Charlson Index, median (P25–P75)3.00
(0.0–5.0)
4.00
(1.0–5.0)
2.50
(0.0–5.0)
0.559
Livestock exposure 0.037
(goats, sheep, pigs, abattoirs, and close relatives)8 (25.8%)7 (43.8%)1 (6.7%)
Type of infection 0.427
Skin and SSTI10 (32.3%)8 (50.0%)2 (13.3%)
Osteomyelitis6 (19.4%)0 (0.0%)6 (40.0%)
Joint prosthetic infections5 (16.1%)1 (6.3%)4 (26.7%)
Bursitis3 (9.7%)1 (6.3%)2 (13.3%)
Infective endocarditis2 (6.5%)2 (12.5%)0 (0.0%)
Urinary tract infection2 (6.5%)2 (12.5%)0 (0.0%)
Diabetic foot infection1 (3.2%)0 (0.0%)1 (6.7%)
Tunnelled catheter for haemodialysis infection1 (3.2%)1 (6.3%)0 (0.0%)
Otitis media1 (3.2%)1 (6.3%)0 (0.0%)
Oxacillin susceptibility31 (100.0%)16 (100.0%)15 (100.0%)
Clindamycin susceptibility26 (83.9%)16 (100.0%)10 (66.7%)0.018
Penicillin susceptibility5 (16.1%)1 (6.3%)4 (26.7%)0.172
Outcomes
In-hospital death1(3.2%)1 (3.2%)0 (0.0%)1.000
1-year death0 (0.0%)0 (0.0%)0 (0.0%)
HUV: Hospital Universitari de Vic; HGTiP: Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol. p value for comparison of values across hospitals.
Table 2. Summary of individual characteristics of the 31 patients diagnosed with S. caprae infections at two hospitals in Catalonia.
Table 2. Summary of individual characteristics of the 31 patients diagnosed with S. caprae infections at two hospitals in Catalonia.
CaseHospital and DateAge (Years)SexUnderlying ConditionsLivestock ExposureDiagnosisSite of S. caprae IsolationAntibiotic Treatment and DurationSurgeryOutcome
1HUV (2021)37FBrugada syndromeNoPyomyositis legWound fluidLZD—28 d YesCured
2HUV (2021)50FHTN, TOF, pulmonary prosthesisYesPulmonary prosthetic valve infective endocarditisBlood cultureCLX + RIF (42 d) → LEV + RIFNoCured
3HUV (2021)68FHTN, obesity, CRFYesTunnelled catheter for haemodialysis infectionWound fluid, catheter cultureUnknownNo (catheter removal)Cured
4HUV (2020)35MNoYesGluteal abscessPurulent dischargeAMO/CV—7 dYesCured
5HUV (2019)77FDM, HTN, CRF, breast cancer,NoLeg ulcer infectionWound fluidCIP—14 dNoCured
6HUV (2019)75MDM, HTN, ICM, below-knee amputation of the left lower limb, aortic prosthesisYesAortic prosthetic valve infective endocarditisBlood cultureCLX + RIF (42 d) + GEN (14 d)YesDied
7HUV (2019)57MHTNYesHip prosthesis infectionSynovial fluidLEV + RIF—84 dYesCured
8HUV (2017)39MNoYesBursitis kneeBursaUnknownYesCured
9HUV (2016)64FDM, obesity, psoriasisNoCellulitis legWound fluidCD—21 dNoCured
10HUV (2015)46FHIVYesCellulitis toePurulent dischargeTMX—14 dNoCured
11HUV (2013)83FHTN, dementiaNoUTIUrine cultureUnknownNoCured
12HUV (2012)85FHTN, ICMNoLeg ulcer infectionWound fluidUnknownNoCured
13HUV (2012)45FNoNoBreast abscessPurulent dischargeAMO/CV—7 dYesCured
14HUV (2012)45MHydrosadenitisNoGluteal abscessPurulent dischargeUnknownYesCured
15HUV (2012)78MHTN, cerebral vasculopathyNoUTIUrine cultureUnknownNoCured
16HUV (2010)1FNoNoOtitis mediaEar drainageAMO/CV—14 dNoCured
17HGTiP (2023)71FNoYesOsteomyelitis calcaneusBone biopsyAMO/CV—28 dYesCured
18HGTiP (2023)30MNoNoOsteomyelitis tibia Bone biopsyLEV—28 dYesCured
19HGTiP (2023)68FHTN, cerebral vasculopathyNoElbow bursitis Purulent dischargeLEV—28 dYesCured
20HGTiP (2023)80MDM, CRF, ICMNoOsteomyelitis toeBone biopsyLEV—15 dYesCured
21HGTiP (2023)62MDM, ICMNoCellulitis toeSkin biopsyAMO/CV—14 dYesCured
22HGTiP (2023)66MHTN, DM, CRFNoOsteomyelitis toeBone biopsyLEV—28 dYesCured
23HGTiP (2023)80MHTN, DM, CRF, ICM, maxillary cancerNoOsteomyelitis toeBone biopsyLEV—15 dYesCured
24HGTiP (2023)52MNoNoTibial osteosynthesis material infectionOsteosynthesis material culture, bone biopsyLEV + RIF—56 dYesCured
25HGTiP (2023)68FHTN, cerebral vasculopathyNoElbow bursitisBursaLEV—28 dYesCured
26HGTiP (2023)30MNoNoTibial osteosynthesis material infectionOsteosynthesis material culture, bone biopsyLEV—56 dYesCured
27HGTiP (2021)84MHTN, DMNoAstragalus osteosynthesis material infectionOsteosynthesis material cultureUnknownYesCured
28HGTiP (2023)79MHTN, DMNoKnee prosthesis infectionPurulent dischargeLEV—56 dYesCured
29HGTiP (2021)49MHTN, DM, ICM, PADNoDiabetic foot infectionPurulent dischargeLEV—42 dYesCured
30HGTiP (2020)82FDM, Dementia, CRF, PADNoOsteomyelitis calcaneusPurulent dischargeCIP—15 dNoCured
31HGTiP (2018)39MNoNoFinger abscessPurulent dischargeAMO/CV—14 dYesCured
List of abbreviations: HUV: Hospital Universitari de Vic; HGTiP: Hospital Germans Trias i Pujol; F: female; M: male; HTN: hypertension; DM: diabetes mellitus; TOF: tetralogy of Fallot; CRF: chronic renal failure; ICM: ischemic cardiomyopathy; UTI: urinary tract infection. PAD: peripheral arterial disease. LZD: linezolid; CLX: cloxacillin; RIF: rifampicin; LEV: levofloxacin; CIP: ciprofloxacin; GEN: gentamicin; AMO/CV: amoxicillin/clavulanic acid; TMX; trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole; CD: clindamycin; d: days.
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Díez de los Ríos, J.; Navarro, M.; Serra-Pladevall, J.; Molinos, S.; Puigoriol, E.; Párraga-Niño, N.; Pedemonte-Parramón, G.; Pedro-Botet, L.; Mascaró, Ó.; Reynaga, E. Clinical and Epidemiological Characteristics of Staphylococcus caprae Infections in Catalonia, Spain. Microorganisms 2025, 13, 53. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms13010053

AMA Style

Díez de los Ríos J, Navarro M, Serra-Pladevall J, Molinos S, Puigoriol E, Párraga-Niño N, Pedemonte-Parramón G, Pedro-Botet L, Mascaró Ó, Reynaga E. Clinical and Epidemiological Characteristics of Staphylococcus caprae Infections in Catalonia, Spain. Microorganisms. 2025; 13(1):53. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms13010053

Chicago/Turabian Style

Díez de los Ríos, Javier, María Navarro, Judit Serra-Pladevall, Sònia Molinos, Emma Puigoriol, Noemi Párraga-Niño, Glòria Pedemonte-Parramón, Luisa Pedro-Botet, Óscar Mascaró, and Esteban Reynaga. 2025. "Clinical and Epidemiological Characteristics of Staphylococcus caprae Infections in Catalonia, Spain" Microorganisms 13, no. 1: 53. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms13010053

APA Style

Díez de los Ríos, J., Navarro, M., Serra-Pladevall, J., Molinos, S., Puigoriol, E., Párraga-Niño, N., Pedemonte-Parramón, G., Pedro-Botet, L., Mascaró, Ó., & Reynaga, E. (2025). Clinical and Epidemiological Characteristics of Staphylococcus caprae Infections in Catalonia, Spain. Microorganisms, 13(1), 53. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms13010053

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