1. Introduction
- “All urban wastewater is adequately treated before being reused or discharged to the (aquatic) environment.
- All wastewater is managed in a sustainable way to protect water resources and aquatic ecosystems.” [12].
2. Results
2.1. Literature Review
2.1.1. RV Incidence
Continent | Country | Duration of Study | # Sample Recruited | Age (years) | (%) Prevalence of RV Diarrheal Cases | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa | Kenya | 2009–2011 | 500 | <5 | 38 | [59] |
Libya | 2007–2008 | 1090 | <5 | 31.5 | [60] | |
Morocco | 2006–2009 | 1388 | <5 | 41.7 | [61] | |
Morocco | 2011 | 335 | <5 | 26.6 | [61] | |
Sierra Leone | 2005 | 128 | <3 | 37.5 | [62] | |
South Africa | 2003–2006 | 3191 | <5 | 22.8 | [63] | |
Tunisia | 2007–2010 | 435 | <13 | 27.6 | [64] | |
Asia | Cambodia | 2005–2007 | 2281 | <5 | 56 | [65] |
China | 2008–2009 | 766 | <5 | 27.94 | [66] | |
China | 2011–2012 | 767 | <5 | 34.3 | [67] | |
India | 2004–2008 | 412 | <3 | 19.2 | [68] | |
India | 2009–2011 | 1807 | <5 | 35.9 | [69] | |
India | 2009–2012 | 1191 | <5 | 39 | [70] | |
India | 2007–2012 | 756 | <5 | 38.4 | [71] | |
Lao PDR | 2005–2007 | 1158 | <5 | 54 | [72] | |
Myanmar | 2004–2005 | 2179 | <5 | 56.3 | [73] | |
South Korea | 2005–2007 | 6057 | <5 | 22 | [74] | |
South Korea | 2007–2008 | 702 | <1 | 25.2 | [75] | |
Taiwan | 2005–2007 | 3435 | <5 | 25 | [76] | |
Europe | Albania | 2007–2010 | 1066 | <5 | 21 | [77] |
France | 2001–2004 | 457 | <15 | 48.8 | [78] | |
Spain | 2006–2008 | 2048 | <5 | 40.1 | [79] | |
Middle East | Iran | 2009–2010 | 163 | <5 | 46.02 | [80] |
Israel | 2007–2008 | 472 | <5 | 39.1 | [81] | |
Saudi Arabia | 2002–2003 | 1000 | <6 | 6 | [82] | |
South America | Argentina | 2004–2007 | 710 | <15 | 19.7 | [83] |
Venezuela | 2013 | 480 | <5 | 21 | [84] |
2.1.2. Excretion Rate
Continent | Country | Year of Study | # Samples Collected (n) | # (%) RV Positive | RV Concentration | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa | Egypt | 2006–2007 | 72 | 6 (8.3) | NRa | [94] |
Kenya | 2007–2008 | 13 | 9 (69.2) | NR | [40] | |
Tunisia | 2003–2007 | 125 | 53(42.4) | NR | [96] | |
Americas | Argentina | 2009 | 52 | 52 (100) | NR | [97] |
Brazil | 2004–2005 | 24 | 11(45.8) | NR | [98] | |
Brazil | 2009–2010 | 24 | 24 (100) | 2.40E+05 genome copies/L b | [99] | |
Brazil | 2009 | 7 | 2 (28.6) | NR | [100] | |
USA | 2011–2012 | 24 | 14 (58.3) | 2.8E+06 genome copies/L c | [101] | |
Venezuela | 2007–2008 | 12 | 8 (66.7) | NR | [102] | |
Asia | China | 2006–2007 | 10 | 10 (100) | NR | [103] |
China | 2006–2007 | 36 | 16 (44.4) | 3.12E+03 genome copies/L b | [104] | |
India | 2009–2010 | 144 | 111(77) | NR | [105] | |
Europe | France | 2003–2004 | 29 | 11(37.9) | NR | [106] |
Italy | 2006–2007 | 16 | 6 (37.5) | NR | [107] | |
Italy | 2010–2011 | 285 | 172 (60.4) | NR | [108] | |
Sweden | 2013 | 7 | 7 (100) | NR | [109] | |
Middle East | Iran | 2010–2011 | 15 | 5 (33.3) | NR | [110] |
2.1.3. Removal during Wastewater Treatment
Country | Concentration in Sewage (Genome copies/L) | Seasonality in Sewage (m/y) | Wastewater per Capita (L per day) | RV Incidence (Episodes per person per year) | Shedding (Genome Copies per case per day) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Brazil | 1.0E+06 | 12 | 144 | 0.24 | 3.1E+10 | [88,99,116] |
China | 6.8E+03 | 6 | 190 | 0.15 | 2.2E+08 | [88,104,114,115] |
NL | 4.6E+03 | 6 | 306 | 0.021 | 1.8E+09 | [87,88,90,113] |
USA | 1.0E+05 | 6 | 265 | 0.0093 | 7.4E+10 | [88,101,111,112] |
Virus a | Country b | Detection Method c | Treatment process(es) d | n | Removal/Inactivation | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (log10) | Stdev (Log10) | ||||||
RV | China | ICC-qPCR | Activated sludge | 12 | 2.08 | 0.63 | [117] |
RV | China | ICC-qPCR | Activated sludge | 12 | 2.83 | 0.49 | [117] |
RV | China | ICC-qPCR | Activated sludge | 12 | 2 | 1.1 | [117] |
RV | China | ICC- qPCR | Coagulative precipitation and sand filtration | 12 | 0.72 | 0.08 | [117] |
PPMV | USA | qPCR | Activated sludge + Cl2 | 12 | 0.76 | 0.53 | [101] |
PPMV | USA | qPCR | Trickling filter + Cl2 | 12 | 0.99 | 0.12 | [101] |
AdV | USA | qPCR | Activated sludge + Cl2 | 12 | 0.7 | [101] | |
AdV | USA | qPCR | Trickling filter + Cl2 | 12 | 1.5 | [101] | |
JCPyV | USA | qPCR | Activated sludge + Cl2 | 12 | 1.64 | 0.98 | [101] |
JCPyV | USA | qPCR | Trickling filter + Cl2 | 12 | 2.56 | 0.64 | [101] |
BKPyV | USA | qPCR | Activated sludge + Cl2 | 12 | 1 | [101] | |
BKPyV | USA | qPCR | Trickling filter + Cl2 | 12 | 1.5 | [101] | |
AiV | USA | qPCR | Activated sludge + Cl2 | 12 | 0.94 | 0.33 | [101] |
AiV | USA | qPCR | Trickling filter + Cl2 | 12 | 0.99 | 0.12 | [101] |
EV | USA | qPCR | Activated sludge + Cl2 | 12 | 1.5 | [101] | |
EV | USA | qPCR | Trickling filter + Cl2 | 12 | 2.1 | [101] | |
EV | NL | CC | Activated sludge | 5 | 1.4 | 0.42 | [90] |
ReoV | NL | CC | Activated sludge | 5 | 1.2 | 0.22 | [90] |
HAdV | Spain | qPCR | Tertiary | 1.2 | [119] | ||
HAdV | Spain | qPCR | Tertiary | 1.9 | [119] | ||
AdV | USA | qPCR | Membrane Bioreactor | 3.9–5.5 | [120] | ||
NoVII | USA | qPCR | Membrane Bioreactor | 4.6–5.7 | [120] |
2.2. Global Rotavirus Emissions



3. Discussion and Conclusions
4. Experimental Section
4.1. Literature Review
4.1.1. Search Strategy
4.1.2. Quality Assessment
4.2. Explanation of the GloWPa-Rota H1 Model
- -
- Pu and Pr are the total urban and rural population of a country, respectively.
- -
- fage the fraction of the population for the age categories (<5, 5–14, 15–25 and 25+)(−).
- -
- fcu and fcr are the fractions of the urban and rural populations using sanitation that is connected to a sewer system (−).
- -
- fdu and fdr are the fractions of the urban and rural populations using sanitation that is a direct source (−). As explained in Vermeulen et al. [124], this includes WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) sanitation types hanging toilets (for both urban and rural population) and no facility, bush, field, unknown, elsewhere, other unimproved (for urban population only).
- -
- fdifr is the fraction of the rural population that has no sanitation facilities and forms a diffuse source (−). This includes JMP sanitation type no facility, bush, field, unknown, elsewhere, other unimproved Vermeulen et al. [124].
- -
- frun is the fraction of feces transported with runoff from land to surface water (−). frun is assumed to be 0.025, which is the median value for animal manure mobilization estimated in Ferguson et al. [125]. The actual RV mobilization depends on wet weather events, runoff amounts, dry weather duration, manure accumulation on the land and survival in the manure. Such an in-depth analysis is a step too far for this paper, so we assume RV mobilization is comparable to animal manure mobilization. That may be a slight overestimation.
- -
- Vp,age is the average viral particle excretion (viral particles person−1·year−1). Vp differs for the age categories and is calculated as described in Section 2.1.1.
- -
- frem is the fraction of viral particles removed by wastewater treatment (−). frem is calculated as described below (Equation (10).
Variable | Variable Name | Data Source |
---|---|---|
P | Population | [127] |
Pu | Urban population | Urban fraction x P |
Pr | Rural population | (1 − urban fraction) × P |
fage | Fraction of the population younger than 5 years of age, from 5 to 14, from 15 to 25 and older than 25. | UN World Population Prospects [128] |
HDI | Human Development Index | [129] |
fcu, fcr fdu, fdr fdifr | Fraction connected (urban and rural) Fraction direct (urban and rural) Fraction diffuse (rural only) | WHO/UNICEF JMP data [121], www.wssinfo.org). Year closest to 2010 was taken from JMP country files. When unavailable, fractions were estimated based on the fraction connected used in Van Puijenbroek et al. [130], which were based on WHO/UNICEF [121] supplemented with data from [131,132,133]. When incomplete (mostly missing values only around 0.01–0.02), missing values were added to non-source, or in case non-source was non-existing, to the category with the highest fraction. |
fp, fs and ft | Fraction primary, primary + secondary and primary + secondary + tertiary treatment | [131,132,133] as explained in Van Puijenbroek et al. [130] |
Population density in a grid cell | LandScan 2010 data [126] |
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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