Mediterranean Aquaculture in a Changing Climate: Temperature Effects on Pathogens and Diseases of Three Farmed Fish Species
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Temperature Projections in the Mediterranean Sea
3. Host-Pathogen Interplay in the Context of Temperature Variation
3.1. The Host Perspective
3.1.1. Temperature Effect on Fish Physiology
3.1.2. Temperature Effect on the Fish Immune System
4. The Pathogen Perspective
4.1. Bacterial Pathogens
4.1.1. Major Bacterial Pathogens
4.1.2. Minor Bacterial Pathogens
4.2. Parasitic Pathogens
4.2.1. Major Parasitic Pathogens
4.2.2. Minor Parasitic Pathogens
4.3. Viral and Fungal Pathogens
4.3.1. Major Viral Pathogens
4.3.2. Minor Viral and Fungal Pathogens
5. Risk Assessment
6. Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Fish Host | Tested Parameters | Temperature (°C) | References |
---|---|---|---|
gilthead seabream | Thermal stress | ≥22 | [77] |
mortality | ≥30 | [77] | |
Haemolytic activity (Optimum) | 20–25 | [116,142] | |
Immunosuppression | ≤15 | [121] | |
European seabass | metabolic rate/enzimatic activity (Optimum) | 20–25 | [64,80,81] |
Oxidative stress | ≥25 | [65] | |
mortality | ≥32 | [82,83] | |
Phagocytic activity | ↑ 5–20; ↓ 25–40 | [117] | |
Antibody response | ↑ 24–30; ↓ 12–18 | [135] | |
Increasing cortisol levels | ≥25 | [89,90] | |
meagre | Optimum rearing (juveniles) | 26–30 | [85] |
Increasing cortisol levels | ≤15 | [88] |
Group | Pathogen | Disease Name | Host | Zoonotic | Refererence on Temperature or Seasonality | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bacteria | Aeromonas sp. | Aeromoniasis | 1,2 | [159] | ||
Aeromonas hydrophila | Aeromoniasis | 2 | yes | [160] | ||
Aeromonas veronii bv sobria | Aeromoniasis | 2 | [161] | |||
Ca. Ichthyocystis spp. | Epitheliocystis | 1,2 | [3,162,163,164,165,166] | |||
Mycobacterium spp. | Mycobacteriosis | 2,3 | yes | [142,167,168,169,170] | ||
Nocardia spp. | Nocardiosis | 3 | [171] | |||
Photobacterium damselae subsp. damselae | 1,2,3 | yes | [11,152,153,172,173] | |||
Photobacterium damselae subsp. piscicida | Pseudoturbeculosis | 1,2 | [174,175,176] | |||
Pseudomonas anguilliseptica | 1 | [177,178,179,180,181] | ||||
Tenacibaculum maritimum | Tenacibaculosis (myxobacteriosis) | 1,2 | [182,183,184] | |||
Vibrio alginolyticus | Vibriosis | 1,2 | [177,185,186,187,188,189,190] | |||
Vibrio anguillarum | Vibriosis | 1,2,3 | [159,191,192,193] | |||
Vibrio harveyi | Vibriosis | 1,2 | ||||
Vibrio splendidus | Vibriosis | 1 | [188] | |||
Parasites | Ciliate | Cryptocaryon irritans | Marine Ich | 1,2,3 | [194,195,196] | |
Trichodina spp. | Trochodiniasis | 1,2 | ||||
Philasterides dicentrarchi (Scuticociliates) | 2 | [197] | ||||
Dinoflagellate | Amyloodinium ocelatum | Velvet disease | 1,2,3 | [198] | ||
Flagellate | Ichthyobodo sp. | Costiasis | 1,2,3 | [199] | ||
Apicomplexa (Myzozoa) | Cryptosporidium molnari | 1 | [200,201] | |||
Eimeria sp. | 1,2 | [199,202] | ||||
Goussia sp. | 1 | |||||
Mesomycetozoa (protozoa) | Ichthyophonus hopheri | Ichthyophoniasis | 1,2 | [203,204] | ||
Myxosporea (Myxozoa) | Ceratomyxa spp. | 1,2 | [205,206,207,208] | |||
Enteromyxum leii | Enteromyxosis | 1 | [209,210,211,212,213] | |||
Kudoa spp. | 1 | |||||
Kudoa dicentrarchi | 2 | [214,215] | ||||
Sphaerospora testicularis | 2 | [214,215] | ||||
Sphaerospora sparis | 1 | [216,217] | ||||
Monogenean | Diplectanum aequans | 2 | [218,219,220,221,222] | |||
Diplectanum sciaenae | 3 | |||||
Encotyllabe spari | 1 | [222] | ||||
Lamellodiscus spp. | 1 | [166,223,224,225] | ||||
Lamellodiscus echeneis | 1 | [226,227] | ||||
Polylabris sp. | 1 | [228] | ||||
Sparicotyle chrysophrii | 3 | [229,230] | ||||
Sparicotyle chrysophrii | Sparocotylosis | 1 | [231,232,233,234,235,236,237] | |||
Nematoda | Anisakis sp. | 2 | yes | [238,239,240] | ||
Hysterothylacium sp. | 1,2 | yes | [241] | |||
Crustacea (Copepoda) | Lernanthropus kroyeri | 2 | [242,243] | |||
Crustacea (Isopoda) | Caligus | 2 | [244,245] | |||
Ceratothoa oestroides | 1,2,3 | [246,247] | ||||
Viruses | Lymphocystis | 1,2 | [248,249,250] | |||
Nodavirus | Viral Encephalopathy and Retinopathy | 1,2 | [251,252] | |||
Fungi | Microsporidia | Glugea sp. | 1 | [253] | ||
Microsporidum aurata | 1 | |||||
Pleistophora sp. | 1 | [254] |
Pathogen | Tested Temperatures (°C) | Min | Optimum | Max | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aeromonas hydropila | ND | 28 | 37 | Reviewed in [159] | |
Aeromonas veronii | 4, 12, 22, 30, 37 | 12 | 30 | ND | [161] |
Mycobacterium spp. | 15, 20, 24, 30, 35, 45 | <15 | 24 | 30 | [142] |
Photobacterium damselae subsp. damselae | 15, 25 | <15 | 25 | [153] | |
25, 37 | 25 | 37 | [152] | ||
Photobacterium damselae subsp. piscicida | 15 | 22.5 to 30 | 32.5 | Reviewed in [175] | |
Pseudomonas anguilliseptica | 5 | 5 to 30 | <37 | Reviewed in [177] | |
Tenacibacilum maritimum | 15 | 30 | 34 | Reviewed in [182] | |
Vibrio alginolyticus | <12 | 30 | 37 | Reviewed in [177] | |
Vibrio anguillarum | 5, 10, 15, 20,25, 30 | 5 | 25 | >30 | [191] |
Temperature | Effects on Host | Effects on Parasites | Effect on Transmission |
---|---|---|---|
+ | Altered feeding | Faster embryonic development and hatching | Earlier reproduction in spring |
++ | Altered behaviour | Faster rates of development and maturation | More generations per year |
+++ | Weakening of immune defences | Decreased longevity of larvae and adults | Prolonged transmission in the fall |
++++ | Reduced host resistance | Increased mortality of all stages | Potential transmission year-round |
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Cascarano, M.C.; Stavrakidis-Zachou, O.; Mladineo, I.; Thompson, K.D.; Papandroulakis, N.; Katharios, P. Mediterranean Aquaculture in a Changing Climate: Temperature Effects on Pathogens and Diseases of Three Farmed Fish Species. Pathogens 2021, 10, 1205. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10091205
Cascarano MC, Stavrakidis-Zachou O, Mladineo I, Thompson KD, Papandroulakis N, Katharios P. Mediterranean Aquaculture in a Changing Climate: Temperature Effects on Pathogens and Diseases of Three Farmed Fish Species. Pathogens. 2021; 10(9):1205. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10091205
Chicago/Turabian StyleCascarano, Maria Chiara, Orestis Stavrakidis-Zachou, Ivona Mladineo, Kim D. Thompson, Nikos Papandroulakis, and Pantelis Katharios. 2021. "Mediterranean Aquaculture in a Changing Climate: Temperature Effects on Pathogens and Diseases of Three Farmed Fish Species" Pathogens 10, no. 9: 1205. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10091205