Social and Physical Neighbourhood Effects and Crime: Bringing Domains Together Through Collective Efficacy Theory
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Social Features of Settings: Socio-Spatial Perspectives and Collective Efficacy
3. Physical Features of Settings—The Broad Catchment of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED)
4. Exploring Socio-Spatial and Built-Form Neighbourhood Effects on Crime through Collective Efficacy—A Socio-Physical Model
4.1. Social Features
4.1.1. Demographics
4.1.2. The Residence and Presence of Frequent Offenders and Those with a High Crime Propensity
4.2. Physical Features
4.2.1. Target Hardening
4.2.2. Neighbourhood Design: Defensible Space, Territoriality, and Enhanced Surveillance
4.2.3. Neighbourhood Design: Limiting Through-Movement
5. Conclusions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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1 | In their volume Communities and Crime, Wilcox et al. (2018, p. 2) note the ‘conceptual ambiguity that prevails in criminology’ regarding the operationalisation and study of communities or neighbourhoods. For an engaging discussion on this, see Wilcox et al. (2018, chp. 9). |
2 | Dense social ties are not always prosocial in nature. See Sampson (2012, p. 151). |
3 | Respondents were asked the extent to which ‘this is a close-knit neighbourhood’, ‘people in this neighbourhood can be trusted’, ‘are willing to help their neighbors’, ‘share the same values’, and conversely ‘generally don’t get along’ (reverse coded). |
4 | Respondents were further asked to assess the likelihood that their neighbours would intervene if ‘children were skipping school’, ‘showing disrespect to an adult’, ‘spray painting graffiti’ ‘a fight broke out in front of their home’ and the ‘fire station was threatened with budget cuts’. |
5 | A two standard deviation increase in CE was associated with a 30% reduction in self-reported violent victimisation, and a 39.7% reduction in police-recorded homicide (Sampson et al. 1997, p. 922). |
6 | CE was the second strongest predictor. |
7 | Reynald and Mihinjac (2019) note that ‘target hardening’ forms part of CPTED and Situational Crime Prevention approaches, as per Cornish and Clarke’s (2003, p. 90) twenty-five techniques of situational prevention. Whilst SCP is not fully considered here, aspects of the Socio-Physical Model outlined below could be configured to assess interactions between ‘target hardening’, ‘extended guardianship’, and ‘natural surveillance.’ |
8 | Dependent upon the upkeep and scale of garden shrubbery (see Nee and Taylor 2000). |
9 | Relatedly, reductions in crimes such as burglary and motor vehicle theft, noted across the U.S., England and Wales, and Australia, have been connected to the improvement in securing such items since the 1990s (Farrell et al. 2014). Yet despite car immobilisers having done just that (Home Office 2016), a recently reported ‘five-fold increase’ of car theft in the West Midlands region of the UK indicates that offenders may be using recently-developed technology to bypass product adaptions (West Midlands Police and Crime Commissioner 2018). |
10 | In their study of social housing estates in Sheffield, UK, researchers found that rates of delinquency were not associated with traditional mechanisms of social disorganisation, such as the transience of populations housed. |
11 | Such as encouraging private space, enhancing lines of sight on to the streetscape (Newman 1972). |
12 | Whilst Newman adapted his original work to consider propose an optimum balance of ‘physical design and social mix’ (see Newman 1980), little consideration was given to impact such formulations would have on crime; this was rather assumed owing to the fact residents would be segregated by lifestyles. |
13 | |
14 | For a summary, see Wikström et al. (2012, pp. 19–22). |
15 | The importance of considering individuals within settings has been identified in recent reformations of SCP principles, lessening the reliance on rational choice and calculated deterrence mechanisms (Wortley and Tilley 2018). |
16 | These aspects of guardianship were measured using an index sum of characteristics that interviewed respondents reported as having on their properties. For example, measures of ‘target hardening’ asked if respondents had engaged in (2 years prior) safety precautions including locking doors, leaving lights on when not at home, using a burglar alarm, and keeping a weapon in the home. For full list of items, see Wilcox et al. (2007, p. 782). |
17 | Measured by the willingness of neighbours to watch over property when individual residents were away. |
18 | Abdullah et al. (2013) considered the effect of age of respondents in forming CE assessments. |
19 | Methodologies employed include interviews and surveys with offenders whom often commit or had previously committed different types of crime in the area; interviews and a collective efficacy survey of selected ‘neighbourhood experts’; and systematic social observations recorded with a car-mounted video camera with recorded images later coded to consider frequencies of disorder and dilapidated buildings. |
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Cole, S.J. Social and Physical Neighbourhood Effects and Crime: Bringing Domains Together Through Collective Efficacy Theory. Soc. Sci. 2019, 8, 147. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci8050147
Cole SJ. Social and Physical Neighbourhood Effects and Crime: Bringing Domains Together Through Collective Efficacy Theory. Social Sciences. 2019; 8(5):147. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci8050147
Chicago/Turabian StyleCole, Sam J. 2019. "Social and Physical Neighbourhood Effects and Crime: Bringing Domains Together Through Collective Efficacy Theory" Social Sciences 8, no. 5: 147. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci8050147