Social Impacts of Shale Oil Extraction: A Multidisciplinary Review of Community and Institutional Change

Abstract

The global expansion of shale oil and gas extraction has generated widespread attention for its environmental, economic, and political implications. However, its social consequences remain less systematically assessed. This review synthesizes interdisciplinary research on how shale energy development affects communities, particularly in rural and resource-dependent regions. While extraction activities may generate economic opportunities and strengthen national energy security, they are also associated with population influx, pressure on infrastructure, housing shortages, public health risks, and increased political polarization. These impacts can alter social relationships, institutional trust, and access to essential services. By organizing and analyzing key themes in the social science literature, this review offers a structured overview of how shale energy development shapes local experiences and social systems. The goal of the present paper is to support researchers, policymakers, and community stakeholders in understanding the civic, communal, and public dimensions of energy transitions and in developing more equitable and sustainable policy responses.

1. Introduction

With growing global demand for energy and heightened concern over climate transitions, there has been renewed interest in hydraulic fracturing as a method for extracting oil and natural gas. This renewed interest in this extraction method is found both within the United States (United States White House 2025) and internationally, focusing largely on the effects of the practice on the surrounding environment, as well as its long-term potential as an energy source. While these environmental and technical dimensions have received substantial attention, the social consequences of extraction—particularly for communities near development sites—remain less systematically explored. Shale energy development can lead to rapid demographic shifts, increased demand for housing and infrastructure, and changes in local governance and institutional trust. These impacts are often experienced unevenly across different populations and regions. This review addresses that gap by synthesizing interdisciplinary research on the societal impacts of hydraulic fracturing, with particular attention to how it alters community life, access to services, and perceptions of place.

Hydraulic fracturing—often referred to as “fracking” or “unconventional” or “shale” oil and gas development—involves injecting a high-pressure mixture of water, sand, and chemicals into subterranean rock formations to release hydrocarbons (National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences n.d.; USGS n.d.). Although this is not the only technique utilized in shale energy extraction, it is the most widely implemented and has generated substantial debate due to its visibility and scale (Ladd 2018). The technique was formally patented in 1865 when E.L. Roberts received a patent for “exploding torpedoes” that he would shoot down oil wells to capture previously inaccessible oil (Ladd 2018; Wells and Wells 2024). Since its origin in the United States, several companies in various countries have adopted the technique and advanced the necessary technology. Patents and technological innovations have drastically transformed the processes and impacts of this approach to releasing oil and natural gas (Ladd 2018). A handful of countries have overtly banned the practice, some have placed temporary bans on exploring potential sources, and others have allowed it in select areas (Herrera 2019). Within the United States, policy decisions are made at the state level, leading to uneven implementation and varied community responses (Marie 2019). As these techniques continue to shape rural landscapes, local economies, and regional planning, a growing body of research has emerged to document their broader societal implications. This review synthesizes those findings with a particular focus on how hydraulic fracturing influences the social systems and everyday experiences of affected populations.

Hydraulic fracturing does not occur in isolation; its effects extend beyond the geological or industrial domain. Extraction activities have far-reaching consequences for individuals and communities—shaping population dynamics, housing markets, public services, institutional trust, political discourse, and local identities. While research has appropriately emphasized the environmental and economic effects of unconventional oil and gas extraction, this review focuses on how such development transforms the social systems in regions where it occurs. We define “social” as encompassing changes in population composition, public health, access to essential services, and community cohesion, particularly in locations undergoing rapid energy development. Social science research has documented how the financial benefits of these extraction methods—such as job creation and land royalties—often coexist with increased inequality, housing pressures, and stress on local infrastructure. These overlapping effects influence how residents perceive their communities, relate to one another, and engage with local governance. As we show in the sections below, understanding the social dimensions of hydraulic fracturing is critical to assessing its full impact on contemporary energy transitions.

When considering the discourse surrounding the social effects of hydraulic fracturing, it is notable that this practice and its effects are tied to at least four of the 17 United Nations (2023) Sustainable Development Goals, including the following:

• 6: Ensure the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation.
• 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all.
• 9: Build a resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and foster innovation.
• 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.

This framework, established by the U.N., contributes to social science research by establishing further justification for researchers to analyze the social effects of hydraulic fracturing as a key part of moving towards these Sustainable Development Goals in the societies affected by—or that participate in—the practice or use extracted materials as an energy source. Social science research helps scholars, policymakers, and communities navigate the complex situations surrounding community change. It shifts the focus to resident perceptions of the community due to this form of energy development to find solutions that aid those at various levels of support for hydraulic fracturing but are affected, nonetheless. Understanding the social effects of this extraction technique helps those who engage with the literature surrounding shale energy development to better ensure the sustainability and access of residents within nearby communities of hydraulic fracturing sites to water and energy, and increases local and extra-local understanding of how to help communities increase resiliency in the face of changing demands on infrastructure and industrialization.

We recognize the major contributions of scholars who have added to our understanding of hydraulic fracturing’s effects. Considering the extensive range of approaches required to comprehend this phenomenon, we offer a concise reference format. In this literature review, we utilize citation-tracking instead of comprehensive systematic reviews to identify the relevant literature on the social effects of shale extraction (see Supplementary Materials Table S1). Citation tracking can help identify seminal or influential works that might not be picked up by keyword searches used in systematic reviews. Further, as the present paper addresses findings across many different disciplines, citation tracking avoids issues with inconsistent terminology or evolving keywords across fields (Belter 2016; Hirt et al. 2023; Janssens and Gwinn 2015).

The remainder of this literature is organized as follows in sections discussing the effects of hydraulic fracturing on population influx, community change, distribution of resources, mental and physical health, environmental impacts, and economic impacts for nearby communities. These sections are summarized in a table found in the conclusion section. While many existing reviews focus exclusively on environmental science, public health, or economics, this literature review integrates findings across disciplines to emphasize the social impacts of shale energy development. This review synthesizes how this practice affects social systems—including changes to population composition, housing markets, public services, institutional trust, political polarization, and community identity. By doing so, this review provides a summary of research on the social consequences of unconventional oil and gas extraction for further qualitative and quantitative research on the consequences of hydraulic fracturing on society, especially those involving marginalized populations or long-term community resilience. Additionally, we aim for this review to be used to inform various levels of governance, advocacy groups, or community planners of both the negative and positive effects of hydraulic fracturing on local communities.

2. Methods

We employ backward and forward citation tracking beginning with foundational studies on hydraulic fracturing’s social impacts, as identified from high-citation works and influential journals in Google Scholar (see Table S1). The review process proceeded as follows:

• Seed Selection: We began with high-citation, foundational studies on the social, economic, and health effects of hydraulic fracturing, identified through Google Scholar and prominent peer-reviewed journals (e.g., Journal of Rural Social Sciences, Energy Policy, International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health).
• Citation Tracking: Using both backward (examining references cited) and forward (examining works that cited the seed articles) citation tracking, we recursively traced literature related to the social dimensions of hydraulic fracturing.
• Inclusion Criteria: Studies were included if they met the following conditions:
  • Addressed one or more social, economic, or health impacts of hydraulic fracturing;
  • Published in a peer-reviewed journal;
  • Published between 2005 and 2025 (with earlier seminal works added when directly cited).
• Screening Process:
  • Articles were first screened by title and abstract for relevance to social impacts.
  • Full-text screening was followed to ensure substantive discussion of social consequences.
  • Articles focused purely on technical, geological, or engineering issues were excluded.
• Saturation and Final Sample: Citation tracking continued until thematic saturation was reached—defined as the point at which no new relevant themes or articles emerge. Ultimately, our review focused on publications from 1993 to 2025, reflecting over three decades of evolving research on the social, economic, health, and environmental dimensions of hydraulic fracturing.

Further procedural details and a breakdown of journals and citation counts can be found in Appendix A and Supplementary Tables S1 and S2.

3. The Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing

This section is organized thematically to reflect recurring areas of impact identified across the literature. While disciplinary studies may isolate specific effects (e.g., health, economics, environment), we categorize findings based on their relevance to major areas of community transformation. The structure proceeds from social impacts (Section 3.1), to environmental risks (Section 3.2), and finally to economic consequences (Section 3.3), allowing for an integrated understanding of how hydraulic fracturing affects lived experience at multiple scales. These categories reflect major nodes of social transformation associated with hydraulic fracturing, and are used here to structure the multidisciplinary findings.

3.1. Social Impacts

We define the social impacts of hydraulic fracturing as encompassing changes in population, community structure, resource access, health, and institutional trust. Synthesizing findings across disciplines, this section highlights how these social dimensions shape community experiences and responses to industrial development. These are not peripheral to hydraulic fracturing’s effects—they are central to how communities experience and respond to industrial development. By drawing from multiple disciplines, this review contributes an integrative synthesis of hydraulic fracturing’s societal impacts, helping bridge environmental, economic, and public health research with sociological and political concerns.

3.1.1. Population Influx

Hydraulic fracturing operations’ rapid development may lead to a sudden influx of workers into rural and small-town communities (McLaughlin et al. 2013; Wilson 2022). This population increase can drastically shift established communities’ access to resources. Changes in population, especially rapid change such as that associated with the development of hydraulic fracturing in an area, can increase the strain on local infrastructures and public services, including schools and the schools’ ability to support local student needs, health care facilities and medical care availability, and law enforcement (Bartik et al. 2019; Brasier et al. 2011, 2014, 2017; Brasier 2017; Schafft et al. 2012; Schafft and Biddle 2013). This strain on local infrastructure and public services can result in diminished school performance and student retention, longer wait times and less specialized services offered by health care facilities and various outpatient programs, and longer response times for local law enforcement as the infrastructure is not in place to respond to the higher volume of needs associated with the rising population. Some studies have also identified affordable and stable housing as an issue, which is especially crucial as it compounds the difficulties faced by populations vulnerable to displacement (Gershenson et al. 2024). Other studies have identified issues regarding access to health care facilities and medical care availability (Emanuel et al. 2021; McDermott-Levy et al. 2013) where patient needs outpaced the resources available to the local health care systems. As a result, residents in the community may experience higher rates of health problems related to hydraulic fracturing, exacerbating existing health disparities (Hirsch et al. 2017; Howarth and Eiser 2023).

3.1.2. Community Changes

The rapid changes brought to communities following the establishment of a nearby shale extraction site can also alter these communities’ social fabric. The arrival of a transient workforce, often composed of young, predominantly male workers, can alter a community’s cultural and social dynamics, sometimes leading to increased rates of crime and social disorder (Bartik et al. 2019; Brasier et al. 2017; Adams and Kelsey 2012; Beleche and Cintina 2018; Filteau 2014, 2015a, 2015b). Increases in violent crime, prostitution, and drug and alcohol use in communities related to shale oil development can erode trust among a community’s residents (Brasier et al. 2017; Filteau 2015b; Boslett and Hill 2022; Grubert 2018) and exacerbate the feelings of loss identified by residents. Beyond the erosion of trust stemming from increased social disorder, studies note that some residents who previously felt a strong connection to their tight-knit communities now express significant concern and feelings of distress and alienation due to energy development operations taking over their land and community (Junod et al. 2018; Sangaramoorthy et al. 2016). Residents expressed that they felt they were “grieving the loss of their environment” and felt that the communities they belonged to were becoming unrecognizable (Junod et al. 2018).

This form of resource extraction may also transform rural landscapes into industrial zones (Glenna et al. 2014; Brasier and Rhubart 2017). The presence of drilling rigs, heavy machinery, and increased truck traffic can disrupt rural areas’ tranquility and esthetic appeal, altering these communities’ lifestyles and identities (Brasier et al. 2017; Brasier and Rhubart 2017; Ferrar et al. 2013; Kondo et al. 2014). The noise, dust, light pollution, and visual effect of extraction activities can detract from the quality of life, leading to a sense of loss and displacement among residents (Ferrar et al. 2013; Allshouse et al. 2019; Boudet et al. 2014; Willyard and Schade 2019). This can diminish residents’ overall feelings of satisfaction with the community and have effects on their engagement with the larger community.

Due to political polarization and differing opinions on the practice, shale oil and gas development has social consequences both within and outside of the community. At the global level, geopolitical debates often focus on energy production, consumption, and climate change (Berardo et al. 2020; Columbia and CGEP 2019; Endicott 2016). The technique is one piece of energy geopolitics; however, as countries are transitioning to other or adding additional forms of energy, the tension stemming from hydraulic fracturing may serve as a helpful case for understanding polarization and risks associated with energy production, consumption, and policy (Tabash et al. 2024; Fry 2019).

At the national level, polarization on energy decisions may be amplified along state and political lines due to varying policies and stances (Fry 2019; Jerolmack 2021). Specifically, within the United States, unconventional extraction has become a highly polarizing issue often dividing communities and political groups (Eaton and Kinchy 2016; Gullion 2015; Jerolmack and Walker 2018). Historically, Republicans often support deregulation to maximize economic and energy benefits, whereas Democrats push for stricter regulations to address environmental and health concerns (Howell et al. 2019). These divides affect elections and legislative priorities, creating conflicts within communities, and the perceived benefits and drawbacks of these operations (Howell et al. 2019; Davis 2012). Some celebrities have had their names dragged through the mud for leasing their property for resource development (Randall 2020). A handful of studies have found that proximity to the drilling site can increase support for natural gas drilling, in part due to economic growth opportunities and other perceived benefits (Jerolmack and Walker 2018; Boudet et al. 2017; Clarke et al. 2016; Gravelle and Lachapelle 2015; Rabe et al. 2011). Others point toward their communities’ reliance on the practice as a reason to continue supporting the practice (Silva and Crowe 2015). Opponents of hydraulic fracturing highlight the environmental and health risks (Powers et al. 2015). This polarization can lead to debates and both pro- and anti-hydraulic fracturing movements at the local, state, and national levels (Jerolmack and Walker 2018; Powers et al. 2015; Mumby 2017; Willis 2015). The social tensions and conflicts that arise from differing views on shale extraction can strain relationships within communities and families, leading to residents reporting higher levels of social isolation and emotional hardship (Brasier et al. 2011; Shandro et al. 2011; Stedman et al. 2012; Willow 2014). This erosion of trust between members of the community can exacerbate the polarization of the community, leading to a vicious cycle that may heighten conflicts within the community.

3.1.3. Distribution of Resources

The dematerialization of the economy refers to the shift from material-intensive production and consumption toward service-based activities that rely less on physical resources (Bernardini and Galli 1993). This trend suggests a potential decoupling of economic growth from environmental degradation (Steinberger et al. 2013). However, practices like hydraulic fracturing complicate this narrative. While the broader economy may appear to use fewer materials per unit of GDP, hydraulic fracturing represents an intensification of resource extraction, relying on vast quantities of water, sand, and chemicals to release oil and natural gas from shale rock (Jackson et al. 2014). Thus, hydraulic fracturing illustrates how even in a supposedly dematerializing economy, underlying material dependencies and ecological risks and burdens persist. Hydraulic fracturing has significant environmental, economic, and social consequences that often are not evenly distributed across the community.

Perceived inequities in the distribution of benefits and burdens associated with hydraulic fracturing can exacerbate political tensions. When the benefits and costs of hydraulic fracturing are not distributed equitably among residents, with few members of the community seeing the economic benefits (Bartik et al. 2019; Emanuel et al. 2021; Howarth and Eiser 2023; Johnston and Cushing 2020), those communities may feel inadequately compensated or ignored by policymakers and industry leaders. Particularly vulnerable populations within the community, such as those from lower-income backgrounds or minority racial or ethnic groups, may face the brunt of hydraulic fracturing’s negative effects while receiving few, if any, of its positive economic benefits (Zwickl 2019; Fry et al. 2015; Ogneva-Himmelberger and Huang 2015). This can lead to a loss of trust in government and institutions for these groups that are disproportionally negatively affected by hydraulic fracturing, undermining social cohesion and democratic processes within community leadership (Mumby 2017; Brasier et al. 2013; Marlin-Tackie et al. 2020).

Hydraulic fracturing requires significant resources to be a feasible energy source, and some critical resources are scarce in specific hydraulic fracturing areas. One such resource is water, of which the process of hydraulic fracturing needs quite a bit of, with a conservative estimate of water use at 1900 m³ (500,000 gallons) per well, although this water use is less than other forms of natural gas production depending on the specifics of the region and the hydraulic fracturing operation (Krupnick and Gordon 2015; Hannibal and Portney 2020). The diversion of water away from the surrounding towns and businesses towards hydraulic fracturing can pose major issues for the residents who live in those towns (Krupnick and Gordon 2015), particularly when water or residents’ access to water is already limited (Hannibal and Portney 2020). Dangers of pollution to the water source from hydraulic fracturing accidents are another concern in water-scarce communities (Hannibal and Portney 2020; Mitchell et al. 2013; Gregory et al. 2011). Hydraulic fracturing often requires large tracts of land to make the processes feasible and profitable, with most hydraulic fracturing operations requiring at least 5–10 acres for surface machinery per well, with many operations requiring more acreage (Richardson et al. 2016; Meng 2014). The various environmental consequence of hydraulic fracturing requires the land to be isolated from other types of use, such as farming or living areas (Habicht et al. 2015; Hitaj et al. 2020). However, when hydraulic fracturing operations are proximate to homes, individuals and families may be subjected to both mental and physical harm (Jerolmack 2021).

3.1.4. Mental and Physical Health

The uncertainty and potential risks associated with living near hydraulic fracturing operations can take a toll on residents’ mental health (Hirsch et al. 2017; Ferrar et al. 2013; Jacquet 2014). Concerns about water contamination, air quality, and the possibility of earthquakes can create chronic stress and anxiety (Hirsch et al. 2017; Sangaramoorthy et al. 2016). The noise and disruption stemming from drilling activities may also contribute to sleep disturbances and other stress-related health problems (Boslett et al. 2021; Casey et al. 2018). Moreover, the social tensions and conflicts that arise from differing views on hydraulic fracturing can strain relationships within communities and families (Brasier et al. 2011). Increased feelings of social isolation and loss resulting from community and environmental changes associated with hydraulic fracturing can also increase issues with mental health challenges. Mental health services in rural areas may be limited, making it difficult for residents to access the support they need (Morales et al. 2020).

Numerous negative physical impacts are associated with hydraulic fracturing. Research has found that residents who live near hydraulic fracturing sites have reported physical health symptoms, such as headaches, vomiting, nosebleeds, upper respiratory tract problems, eye irritation, diarrhea, and skin rashes (McDermott-Levy et al. 2013; Sangaramoorthy et al. 2016; Saberi et al. 2014; Werner et al. 2015). Work-related injuries and fatalities have diminished stability and quality of life in some hydraulic fracturing communities (Junod et al. 2018; Fernando and Cooley 2016a, 2016b). Chemicals released during various stages of the hydraulic fracturing process may also affect the respiratory, gastrointestinal, brain, and nervous systems (McDermott-Levy et al. 2013). Finally, hydraulic fracturing operations have also been associated with poor birth outcomes, such as preterm birth, low birth weight, and birth defects (Deziel et al. 2020; Hill 2018; Hill and Ma 2022; Janitz et al. 2019; Tran et al. 2020).

Air pollution and its physical effects on residents in local communities are other critical issues surrounding the effects on health associated with hydraulic fracturing (Hill and Ma 2022; Acemoglu et al. 2023). The release of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and other pollutants during the extraction process can degrade air quality, leading to respiratory problems and other health issues for nearby residents. Studies have linked hydraulic fracturing activities to increased rates of cancer, reproductive and fetal conditions, and other serious health conditions (McKenzie et al. 2012). Several studies have also examined asthma exacerbation in areas near hydraulic fracturing sites and found positive correlations (Blundell and Kokoza 2022; Koehler et al. 2018; Rasmussen et al. 2016). Furthermore, light and noise pollution are associated with hydraulic fracturing and may cause physical health issues, such as nasal and sinus symptoms and migraines, as well as mental health symptoms such as depression, stress, and anxiety (Casey et al. 2018; Deziel et al. 2020; Fisher et al. 2018). Hydraulic fracturing’s health effects can disproportionately affect vulnerable populations, including low-income communities and communities of color (Emanuel et al. 2021; Howarth and Eiser 2023; Gregory et al. 2011). These groups may have less access to health care and may be more likely to live near industrial sites due to economic constraints (Emanuel et al. 2021). As a result, they may experience higher rates of health problems related to hydraulic fracturing, exacerbating existing health disparities (Hirsch et al. 2017; Howarth and Eiser 2023). As previously noted, communities surrounding hydraulic fracturing sites face increased issues with access to health care, which increases the severity of many of these health concerns as residents face barriers in receiving treatment.

3.2. Environmental Impacts

Despite its economic benefits, unconventional shale development poses significant environmental and health risks that affect local communities. One of the primary concerns is water contamination during all stages of the extraction process (Krupnick and Gordon 2015; Vidic et al. 2013; Shrestha et al. 2017; Torres et al. 2016). The chemicals used in the hydraulic fracturing process can seep into groundwater supplies, posing risks to drinking water (Hill and Ma 2022; US EPA 2016). Incidents of water contamination have been reported in several states, raising concerns about their water resources’ long-term sustainability (US EPA 2015; Rahm and Riha 2014). Additionally, the large amounts of fresh water required for this method reduce the amount of water available for agriculture, drinking supplies, aquatic ecosystems, and power generation (Hitaj et al. 2020; Shrestha et al. 2017; Torres et al. 2016).

Academic literature on the environmental impacts of shale energy development highlights significant concerns regarding air, noise, and light pollution. These operations release various air pollutants, including VOCs, nitrogen oxides (NOx), methane, and particulate matter (Allen 2016; Field et al. 2014; Roy et al. 2014). VOCs and NOx contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone, a harmful pollutant (Hui et al. 2023). Studies have shown elevated levels of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX compounds) near development sites, which are linked to health issues such as respiratory problems, headaches, and cancer (Adgate et al. 2014). Methane, a potent greenhouse gas, is released during the drilling and extraction processes. Although methane is less abundant in the atmosphere than carbon dioxide, it has a much higher global warming potential, exacerbating climate change (McDermott-Levy et al. 2013; Jackson et al. 2014).

Additionally, these operations generate significant noise from drilling, hydraulic fracturing itself, and associated activities, such as truck traffic and compressor stations. Noise levels at hydraulic fracturing sites can sometimes exceed decibels above the threshold for potential hearing damage if exposure is prolonged (Adgate et al. 2014; Hays et al. 2017). Noise pollution from shale extraction has been associated with various health impacts, including sleep disturbances, stress, and cardiovascular issues (Allshouse et al. 2019; Hays et al. 2017; Richburg and Slagley 2019). The noise may be particularly disruptive in rural areas where ambient noise levels are typically low (Albert and Decato 2017). Studies have noted that noise pollution can also adversely affect wildlife, leading to changes in behavior, reproduction, and habitat use (Adgate et al. 2014; Hays et al. 2017; Farooqi et al. 2022).

Extraction sites are often illuminated around the clock to facilitate continuous operations. This artificial light can cause light pollution, disrupting the natural light-dark cycles crucial for both human and ecological health (Boslett et al. 2021; Patel 2019; Xiao et al. 2020). For instance, studies have shown that excessive light can disorient migratory birds and affect nocturnal animals’ behavior (Burt et al. 2023; Cabrera-Cruz et al. 2018; Poot et al. 2008). Research has also shown that sleep deprivation, which may result from nighttime lighting disrupting sleep patterns, can lead to reduced cognition and productivity, mental health problems, and increased mortality rates (Patel 2019; Xiao et al. 2020; Hafner et al. 2017; Ma et al. 2020).

Finally, this form of development has been associated with an increase in seismic activity (Pei et al. 2018; Weingarten et al. 2015). The injection of wastewater into deep wells, a common practice in these operations, can trigger earthquakes of various intensities (Brudzinski and Kozłowska 2019; Davis and Fisk 2017; Villa and Singh 2020; Westwood et al. 2017; Wu et al. 2018). States like Oklahoma and Texas have experienced a rise in earthquake frequency and intensity, leading to property damage and heightened anxiety among residents (Villa and Singh 2020; Elser et al. 2020, 2023). The social implications of living in an area prone to industry-induced earthquakes include not only physical damage to homes but also a decrease in residents’ property values and cause psychological stress (Burnett and Mothorpe 2021; Cheung et al. 2018; Ferreira et al. 2018). Similarly to social and health impacts, environmental externalities may have a greater influence on disadvantaged populations (Vidic et al. 2013; Banzhaf et al. 2019a, 2019b; Johnston et al. 2020; Kroepsch et al. 2019; Soriano et al. 2023). These social effects—compounded with other ongoing changes within the community—are important areas of inquiry when evaluating the full impacts of hydraulic fracturing alongside its environmental and physical risks.

3.3. Economic Impacts

Unconventional oil and gas extraction has made a notable contribution to local and national economies, with both positive and negative effects—particularly for communities located near development sites. The boom in interest and development of hydraulic fracturing has led to substantial job creation in regions where shale deposits are abundant. For example, areas such as North Dakota’s Bakken Shale and Pennsylvania’s Marcellus Shale have seen significant economic benefits, according to some research (Bartik et al. 2019; Kelsey et al. 2011; Kim and Johnson 2020; Wrenn et al. 2015). Employment opportunities in drilling, transportation, and related industries have increased, leading to lower unemployment rates and higher incomes in these regions (Bartik et al. 2019; Feyrer et al. 2017; Office of the Governor, State of North Dakota 2023; Silva 2017; Weber 2012). Furthermore, the economic activity generated by these operations may extend beyond direct employment. Local labor markets, such as restaurants, hotels, and retail stores, can experience increased demand due to the influx of workers (Feyrer et al. 2017; Christopherson 2011; Maniloff and Mastromonaco 2017). This economic ripple effect can lead to revitalization in economically depressed areas, providing a much-needed boost to local economies, although the distributions of these costs and benefits may be inequitable (Brasier et al. 2017; Feyrer et al. 2017; Hardy and Kelsey 2015; Schafft et al. 2014). However, it is important to note that research has also revealed that shale development caused little to no measurable effect on local employment, or that it is short-lived lived, which can lead to issues for the community after the shale deposit or other resources have been diminished or depleted (Feyrer et al. 2017; Cosgrove et al. 2015; Munasib and Rickman 2015; Paredes et al. 2015).

Unlike other situations where the government has jurisdiction over resource extraction, the mineral rights owner can lease the right to extract oil and gas resources for a specific duration known as the primary term. In return for permitting mineral extraction, the lessee receives a signing bonus based on the property’s acreage and a royalty rate based on the value of the extracted oil and gas. Private mineral ownership likely promotes unconventional oil and gas development by allowing citizens to benefit financially from leasing their land (Paredes et al. 2015; Black et al. 2021; Brown et al. 2019). However, in some cases, this has led to small-scale property owners feeling a lack of control over their homes and properties (Malin 2014; Malin et al. 2023).

In addition to job creation, shale extraction has generated tax revenues for some state and local governments (Bangsund and Hodur 2014; Newell and Raimi 2018; Weber et al. 2016b). These funds can be used to improve public services, such as education, health care, and infrastructure. For instance, the impact fees imposed on drilling companies in Pennsylvania have funded a range of projects, from road repairs to increased budgets for the public school system, largely benefiting the wider community (Paydar et al. 2016) and increasing community resilience towards fluctuating economic patterns. However, there are also negative economic effects from hydraulic fracturing. Research has found that economic impacts from this type of development are associated with increased housing costs, decreased volunteerism, and decreased regional social capital, which can negatively affect the wealth of long-term residents in hydraulic fracturing areas (Fernando and Cooley 2016b; Wrenn et al. 2015; Bangsund and Hodur 2014; Rathge et al. 2012; Schafft et al. 2017). Development from hydraulic fracturing might indirectly affect agriculture: landowners earning from leases and royalties could help farmers pay off loans, buy new equipment, and expand their businesses. However, higher land values might hinder generational land transfers, cause farm exits for those not receiving payments, and lead to land concentration (Weber et al. 2016a; Weber and Hitaj 2015). In addition, farmers must compete with the gas industry for supplies such as equipment, labor, and land (Glenna et al. 2014). Overall, findings on the economic costs and benefits of hydraulic fracturing vary, and research finds that the “boom” that hydraulic fracturing causes is often followed by a “bust” period, which can have negative effects on local communities’ economies (Schafft et al. 2014; Jacquet and Kay 2014).

Comparable to many other industries, the oil and gas industry was greatly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Black et al. (2021, p. 326) reported that “oil and gas drilling plunged by 80% in April 2020 before recovering slightly to 40% of 2019 levels through the end of the year, oil production plunged by 22% in May 2020 from a November 2019 high before recovering slightly in June, and natural gas production declined by 8.5% over that time frame and looks to have recovered by December 2020.” The literature discussed in this review focuses on the boom phase of shale development, and although it still proves beneficial, time will tell if the patterns documented in research thus far will persist after the pandemic.

4. Conclusions

This review aims to compile and organize the dispersed literature regarding how hydraulic fracturing affects social systems—including changes to population composition, housing markets, public services, institutional trust, political polarization, and community identity in order to improve accessibility for academic researchers, applied professionals, and the general public. This extraction method remains a controversial topic on local, state, national, and international levels. Although its proponents cite various social, environmental, and economic benefits, just as many opponents highlight the negative effects in each of these areas. The social and socio-economic implications of shale energy development are foundational to understanding the full effect of energy transitions on communities. These findings are summarized from the discussion provided in this literature review in

Table 1. Summary of Social Impacts Associated with Hydraulic Fracturing: Key Themes from the Literature.

Section	Key Takeaways
Section 3.1.1. Population Influx	Hydraulic fracturing can rapidly increase a community’s population, straining schools, health care, housing, and law enforcement. This strain reduces service quality and disproportionately affects vulnerable populations. Hydraulic fracturing can also disrupt residents’ perception of esthetics and quality of life, leading to dissatisfaction and loss of community identity.
Section 3.1.2 Community Changes	The influx of a transient, often male workforce can raise crime rates and social disorder, weakening trust and social cohesion. Hydraulic fracturing divides communities politically and socially, leading to emotional distress, alienation, and social isolation, especially when residents feel disconnected from a rapidly changing environment.
Section 3.1.3 Distribution of Resources	Hydraulic fracturing’s economic benefits are not shared equally, with marginalized groups often bearing more environmental and social costs. This inequity contributes to distrust in institutions and weakens community solidarity, particularly where resource distribution appears unfair or exclusionary.
Section 3.1.4 Mental and Physical Health	Living near hydraulic fracturing sites is associated with anxiety, chronic stress, and limited access to mental health care. Physically, residents report a range of symptoms and increased risks of serious health conditions due to pollution, with low-income and minority groups disproportionately affected.
Section 3.2 Environmental Impacts	Hydraulic fracturing can cause water contamination, air pollution, noise and light pollution, and induced seismic activity. These environmental issues harm both ecological and human health, with disproportionate effects on disadvantaged populations, contributing to broader social and health inequalities.
Section 3.3 Economic Impacts	Hydraulic fracturing may boost local economies through job creation and tax revenues, but benefits are uneven and often short-lived. Economic downsides include rising housing costs, social capital erosion, and agricultural challenges. Long-term sustainability is uncertain, especially post-COVID-19.

.

This review reveals that unconventional oil and gas extraction is not merely an environmental or economic issue, but a transformative social force that reshapes communities in both visible and subtle ways. Several overarching insights emerge:

• Social fragmentation and institutional distrust: Shale energy development exacerbates polarization and weakens trust in governance, especially in rural and semi-rural communities. These dynamics are intensified by perceived or actual exclusion from decision-making and a lack of transparency in regulatory processes.
• Unequal distribution of harm and benefit: Economic gains tend to accrue to landowners and external stakeholders, while health burdens, housing pressures, and environmental degradation disproportionately affect low-income renters, communities of color, and already underserved populations.
• Cumulative infrastructure and public health stress: Hydraulic fracturing-related population influx and industrialization strain schools, hospitals, and public safety systems. Combined with pollution and health risks, this overload creates compounding vulnerabilities—particularly where health care access is limited.
• Environmental justice concerns: The practice disproportionately affects communities that are already socially and geographically marginalized, reinforcing patterns of environmental racism and structural inequality in exposure to industrial hazards.
• Energy equity and transition planning: The expansion of unconventional extraction raises critical questions about who benefits from energy transitions and who bears their costs. Ensuring equitable access to clean energy and mitigating harm to vulnerable populations must be central to future energy and climate strategies.

Taken together, these findings call for more integrated frameworks in both research and policymaking. Scholars should prioritize interdisciplinary, community-engaged studies that center local voices—particularly from marginalized groups. Policymakers, meanwhile, must assess the full social cost of shale oil and gas development and avoid technocratic approaches. Equity, inclusion, and long-term resilience should be central to future energy transitions. By foregrounding the social consequences of hydraulic fracturing, this review contributes to a broader understanding of how technological and economic development intersect with lived experience. Social scientists, environmental researchers, and energy planners alike must work toward frameworks that protect community well-being while navigating energy imperatives.

While many prior reviews focus primarily on environmental or economic dimensions, this paper contributes a needed synthesis of how this extraction practice affects social systems—including population composition, institutional trust, political dynamics, and access to services. Specifically, this review contributes to the field by:

• Synthesizing dispersed social science literature on hydraulic fracturing’s community-level impacts;
• Identifying recurring themes of institutional distrust, inequality, and social fragmentation;
• Bridging disciplinary silos to connect environmental, economic, and sociopolitical research; and
• Offering an accessible resource for scholars, policymakers, and community stakeholders seeking to understand the full human implications of energy development.

By foregrounding these social dynamics, the review calls attention to critical issues of equity, cohesion, and resilience in energy transition planning. Future research and policy must move beyond technocratic assessments and engage more fully with the lived experiences of communities shaped by industrial change.

Hydraulic fracturing has also significantly affected the economy and energy landscape. Economically, it has spurred growth and job creation across the U.S., contributing to local and national economic booms, though there are concerns about the longevity of the growth provided to nearby communities. This form of energy development has also enhanced U.S. energy independence by reducing reliance on foreign oil and gas, whereas increased production has led to lower energy costs for consumers and industries (Gold 2014). Globally, increased natural gas production has altered the energy landscape, giving the United States more leverage in international relations and influencing foreign policy through energy exports (Gold 2014; MacKinnon et al. 2018; Frondel and Horvath 2019). However, as noted before, the economic benefits and costs are not equally shared among those living in nearby communities. Environmentally, natural gas from shale extraction burns cleaner than coal, reducing greenhouse gas emissions when used for electricity generation (MacKinnon et al. 2018). However, the practice also poses considerable environmental and health risks. It can contaminate groundwater with chemicals (Hill and Ma 2022), and methane leaks negate some climate benefits (Jackson et al. 2014). Health issues such as respiratory problems have been reported near hydraulic fracturing sites due to pollution (Blundell and Kokoza 2022). The related heavy equipment and increased truck traffic strain local infrastructure (Brasier 2017), whereas wastewater disposal can induce seismic activity, causing minor earthquakes (Brudzinski and Kozłowska 2019). Beyond these physical environmental and health risks, the unequal distribution of resources and the influx of health issues can be exacerbated by diminished access to health care systems. Future scholarship and policy must evaluate not only environmental outcomes, but also the structural inequities embedded in shale energy development. A full understanding of hydraulic fracturing’s impacts requires attention to who benefits, who is harmed, and how communities can build resilience in the face of industrial change.

When considering the full picture of the effects of unconventional oil and gas development on communities, scholars and policymakers should move past considering only the environmental science and towards a more whole understanding of the social and structural dimensions of this extraction practice. Research conducted by social scientists points to deep and varied consequences for nearby communities and residents, including how shale energy development influences local economies, strains access to resources such as health care and affordable housing, can increase community division and political polarization, and can decrease trust in the local government. The human dimension of the effects of hydraulic fracturing is important and should be part of the larger discussion of the costs and benefits of energy extraction across the United States and the world. Balancing the economic advantages of this form of development with its environmental and health risks remains a critical challenge, shaping policy debates and political dynamics at multiple levels. As countries move toward more sustainable forms of energy, understanding the social and socio-economic changes that accompany this transition will provide meaningful insights into how these processes can be performed equitably and justly. Despite growing attention to these issues, significant gaps remain in understanding the long-term, lived experiences of hydraulic fracturing in underrepresented regions—especially as communities navigate post-boom transitions and evolving policy landscapes. By foregrounding themes of social fragmentation, institutional trust, and uneven access to resources, this review contributes a needed social science framework to current energy policy debates. Our interdisciplinary synthesis enables researchers and policymakers to more fully assess the tradeoffs of hydraulic fracturing, particularly in terms of equity and resilience.