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Article

The Proximity of Hybrid Universities as a Key Factor for Rural Development

by
Jacobo Núñez-Martínez
1,*,
Laura Rodríguez-Fernández
1 and
Luisa Fernanda Rodríguez
2
1
Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, UNED, 28040 Madrid, Spain
2
Faculty of Business & Teaxh, Alfonso X el Sabio University, 28691 Villanueva de la Cañada, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Soc. Sci. 2025, 14(8), 467; https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14080467
Submission received: 12 June 2025 / Revised: 17 July 2025 / Accepted: 18 July 2025 / Published: 28 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Community and Urban Sociology)

Abstract

Currently, the role of a university in promoting the development of rural areas has been emphasized. However, an increase in academic training can lead to a growth in rural migration due to the lack of job opportunities for university graduates. Given the scarcity of studies on the impact of higher education institutions in areas at risk of depopulation, a research study has been conducted with university students residing in Castilla y León (Spain) in order to understand their insights on the benefits that university education can bring to rural areas, as well as to comprehend the reasons that would motivate the migration of university students or even the interest of institutions in addressing the issue of depopulation. The results achieved suggest that an increase in education could help slow down this process, with the proximity of the university being a decisive factor for population settlement. Additionally, while the shortage of job opportunities would be the main cause of migration, there would also be other factors contributing to depopulation, such as lack of leisure or services, despite a will to stay. Finally, the survey respondents expressed skepticism about the institutions’ interest in addressing this problem.

1. Introduction

The depopulation process poses one of the major challenges facing the European Union, as it causes a progressive loss of competitiveness in rural areas (Artz 2003; Johnson and Lichter 2019; European Union 2011). In response to this situation, European authorities have strengthened the role of universities in their rural development policy, considering that an increase in higher education will allow economic growth in the most depopulated regions and help prevent the migratory process. This fact has been demonstrated by various interregional econometric models analyzing the contribution of education and R&D to regional development (Albulescu and Albulescu 2014; Bardales-Cárdenas et al. 2024; Männasoo et al. 2018; Vogel 2015).
However, although the correlation between the accumulation of human capital and economic growth in various countries has been demonstrated due to its multiplier effect (Ramos et al. 2010; Haapanen and Tervo 2012). Its impact at a regional level may not be so evident, especially in more sparsely populated areas or in those with a low degree of development, since while positive externalities of an indirect nature would exist, their direct effects on regional economic growth would be questionable considering the lack of conclusive results that could establish a connection between higher educational levels and territorial economic improvement (Berry and Glaeser 2005; Rosenthal and Strange 2008; Anselin et al. 1997; Abramovsky et al. 2007; Florax 1992; Di Liberto 2008; Valero and Van Reenen 2019; Andersson et al. 2009). This dysfunction between the qualifications of the inhabitants and regional development would be motivated by the lack of a socio-economic environment that allows for the application of acquired knowledge (Fujita 1988; Venhorst et al. 2011; Varga 2000). Therefore, if a labor market is not attractive in terms of salary or job opportunities, it is likely that graduates will migrate to other regions (Rehak 2020).
This imbalance between supply and demand for graduates can have negative consequences both in terms of migration, as university graduates would move to other geographical areas that would eventually benefit from the acquired knowledge (Faggian and McCann 2009; De La Roca 2017; Maleszyk 2021), as well as by an issue of overeducation if they remain in their place of residence (Herrera-Idárraga et al. 2012; Van De Werfhorst 2002; Summerfield and Theodossiou 2017). Therefore, the impact of education on regional economic growth would not necessarily be positive as there is no direct link between the number of university graduates and a larger accumulation of human capital (Winters 2018; Ramos et al. 2012).
Currently, there is no consensus on how evaluate what constitutes an excess of human capital in regional economic growth, as Ramos et al. (2012) indicates that there have been few specific studies at the regional level due to the difficulty in obtaining data. Statistical research has been conducted on both the migratory process of rural graduates (Ahlin et al. 2018; Haapanen and Tervo 2012; Venhorst et al. 2011), and the effects of overeducation on regional development (Rodríguez-Pose and Vilalta-Bufí 2005; Ramos et al. 2012; Murphy et al. 1991; Neumark and Simpson 2015). However, in both cases, the research has either been conducted before students enter university or after they have completed their studies, so there is a lack of research on the opinions of university students while they are studying.
With the purpose of filling this gap, a survey has been conducted with students enrolled in a university institution and residing in one of the regions with the highest depopulation rate in the European Union, in order to know their opinion on the following hypotheses (Figure 1):
  • An increase in university education can slow down the process of depopulation.
  • You could apply the acquired knowledge in a professional activity in your place of residence.
  • There is a real concern about the problem of depopulation.

2. Literature Review

The European Union did not tackle the problem of depopulation until the late 1980s, when its negative effects began to become evident due to population aging and the lack of generational replacement that could reverse the process of economic and social decline that was taking place in rural areas. In such context, modifications were initiated in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), which had been focused until then on the sustainability of prices and agricultural structure, in order to develop a strategy that would boost the development of the economic and social fabric of rural areas (Grodzicki and Jankiewicz 2022; Johnson and Lichter 2019). Nevertheless, it was not until the Cork Declaration in 1996 that European agricultural policies began to be modified in order to promote a larger territorial cohesion through a sustainable development policy that encourages population settlement by financing innovative business activities (Leduc et al. 2021; San-Martín González and Soler-Vaya 2024).
Despite the evident achievements reached through the various programs implemented by the European Union, the phenomenon of depopulation has not been stopped and decrease in residents continues to occur despite political efforts. In fact, projections for the period between 2015 and 2030 in the European Union as a whole barely suggest a growth of 0.6% in rural areas (European Commission 2018).
The consequences stemming from depopulation as well as the lack of young people that may allow a generational replacement in an aging population have had a direct impact on economic growth, leading to a structural shortfall called the “vicious circle of decline”, resulting from the lack of human capital for the development of business activities (Baraja-Rodríguez et al. 2021; Pinilla and Sáez 2017). The current low economic expectations in rural areas would lead to a progressive reduction in private commercial services, due to a general lack of interest in investing in areas with low population density, as well as to a decrease in planned public services according to the criteria of user ratio per service unit, which are mainly focused on healthcare for the older population. This decline would also be reflected in the lack of investment and planning in infrastructure, both in transportation and communications, leaving rural areas progressively isolated from an adequate accessibility that would prevent their socio-economic development, and ultimately leading to a long-term territorial competitiveness loss (San-Martín González and Soler-Vaya 2024; Molina Ibáñez et al. 2023). The final result of this “vicious cycle of decline” would translate into a problem of social sustainability in the absence of a local environment that allows the professional and economic development of its inhabitants. Given the scarcity of job opportunities in certain productive sectors that affect mainly residents with a higher level of education, they would be forced to migrate in search of jobs more in line with their academic training (Bernard and Bell 2018; Machin and Salvanes 2025; Pinilla and Sáez 2021).
This process of selective migration would not only reduce the capacity for demographic growth, but it would also limit opportunities for integration into knowledge-based economies. As a result of the loss of qualified human capital, job opportunities would be limited to precarious and unskilled local employment, leading to new migratory flows of future university graduates (González-Leonardo and López-Gay 2019; Docquier and Rapoport 2012).

2.1. The Migration of University Students

Human capital decisions to migrate have been analyzed essentially from an economic perspective, considering that the individuals evaluate costs and benefits associated with the decision to migrate based on differences in wages and employment between regions (Sjaastad 1962; Hicks 1963). In this way, graduates would be the group with the highest predisposition to leave the less-developed regions in search of their own professional improvement in areas with a greater economic potential (Maleszyk 2021; Crown et al. 2020; Berck et al. 2016; Haapanen and Tervo 2012).
The academic literature has addressed the migratory phenomenon of university students from various perspectives aiming to identify the characteristic features of those university students with a greater inclination towards geographical mobility. A first approach is made through (Faggian et al. 2006; Faggian and McCann 2009) sequential migratory behavior, that classifies students into five categories according to their predisposition: (1) repeat or recurrent migrants would be those students who move from their place of residence to enter university and afterwards they move to other areas to work; (2) return migrants, students who move away from their home to study and then return to their place of residence to pursue their professional career; (3) university migrants, who migrated from their place of residence to pursue their studies and settle in the area where they have completed their studies; (4) late migrants would be those students who remain in their place of residence during their studies and then move to other geographical areas to practice their profession; and (5) non-migrants, who graduate and work in their original home.
The first category identified by Faggian represents the most significant group in terms of migratory behavior (Faggian and McCann 2009). In these cases, the decision to move is made prior to the completion of the first university course, as confirmed by subsequent research conducted by Psycharis et al. (2019) in Greece, Ahlin et al. (2018) in Sweden or Tosi et al. (2019) in Italy. Thus, the student plans their educational and professional process according to their own career aspirations and regardless of the characteristics of their place of residence (Berck et al. 2016; Lovén et al. 2020; Findlay et al. 2015; DaVanzo 1983).
Another aspect that would also influence the motivation to migrate would be related to the subject studies by the student, since graduates in sciences including the different branches of engineering, technology, or medicine, would be more likely to migrate than graduates in creative arts, education, or law (Faggian and McCann 2008; Psycharis et al. 2019). The overall grade obtained once the degree is completed would also influence the motivation, as students with better academic records would be more prone to regional displacement (Faggian et al. 2014, 2017; Capuano 2012). All of these circumstances would corroborate that the migration decision would be motivated by their own professional expectations (Ahlin et al. 2018; Crown et al. 2020). However, in recent years there has been a shift in perspective on the migratory processes by including the existence of non-strictly economic factors that would also influence the mobility of young university students (Graves 1980); a distinction has been made between the so-called “hard factors”, related to employment opportunities, salary, or social promotion, and “soft factors”, which would include both tangible and intangible aspects related to cultural environment, lifestyles, or quality of leisure, all of them factors that would likewise influence the migratory decision (Borén and Young 2013; Florida 2002; Maleszyk 2021; Glaeser and Maré 2001; Faggian et al. 2014). If we analyze the motivating factors known as «soft factors», these would have their origin in the social composition of the rural areas by producing a dysfunction between more traditional lifestyles and the social demands of youth, in which the lack of infrastructure and services for young people, mostly oriented towards the elderly, would be unattractive to the young sectors as they are not in line with current times. Thus, an urban lifestyle model spread through the media would lead many young people to move in search of these experiences, given the absence of incentives that allow their own personal development within their hometowns (Conejos 2019; Delgado 2018).

2.2. The Blended University Learning as a Driver for Rural Development

Within the various strategies implemented by the European Union for territorial development, the role of Higher Education Institutions as agents for transformation has been strengthened, allowing them to contribute to the economic progress of regions given the existing link between intellectual capital and improvement in economic development (Robinson-Pant 2023; Alamá-Sabater et al. 2021). This transformation consists of encouraging universities to play a more active role in cooperation with local entities and companies in the search for specific solutions to regional problems through innovation programs stemming from knowledge management.
This commitment to the knowledge economy has led to an increase in educational investment within the framework of the Europe 2020 strategy (European Commission 2010). This strategy promotes the creation of academic institutions with the aim of fostering economic growth for their development through the entrepreneurial activities of university students (Bardales-Cárdenas et al. 2024; Robinson-Pant 2023; Sabrina et al. 2021; Agasisti et al. 2019; Neumark and Simpson 2015). Both the research conducted by Skuras et al. (2005) through a comparative study in southern European countries and the one carried out by Murphy et al. (1991) would suggest that education has a positive impact on economic growth as a result of the entrepreneurship of its graduates, allowing for the diversification of local economies due to the entrepreneurship of its graduates, acquired during their university training and enabling the attraction of external investments as a consequence of the competitive advantage generated by the accumulation of intellectual capital (Varga 2000; Bramwell and Wolfe 2008; Harloe and Perry 2004). In the same way, when observing regional development in the United States, Faggian et al. (2017) indicated that it was composed by entrepreneurship, human capital, and creativity, and although education was not a prerequisite for entrepreneurship, there was a certain connection between both concepts. On the other hand, Florida et al. (2008) pointed out to creativity as an essential element for economic growth, since it generates new ideas or technologies, as there is a clear link between formal education and creativity.
In this way, investment in universities would enhance regional development in the long term, as supported by the research carried out by Rodríguez-Pose and Vilalta-Bufí (2005) through microeconomic indicators of European regions, as well as by studies conducted by Valero and Van Reenen (2019) which indicate that a 10% increase in the number of universities in a geographical area could be associated with a 0.4% improvement in its Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
Another benefit that would provide higher education in non-traditional environments, and particularly the blended learning model, would be the possibility for residents to access higher education from their own place of residence, having thus the opportunity to start a university degree or continue the studies previously undertaken when their geographical or personal situation prevents them from accessing the in-person university model. Since different studies have pointed out that the students who study near their hometowns are more likely to stay in the same region (Gottlieb and Joseph 2006), as shown by the research conducted by Busch and Weigert (2010) on migrants in Germany, they point out that 70% of university students who had studied in their own hometown were still living in the same place 10 years later. This phenomenon would be the result of the cumulative inertia sustained over time through the creation of residence ties, as there is a positive correlation between the length of residency and the permanence in a place through the strengthening of family ties, the importance of the local community as a means of social integration, or the age of the student; it is observed that older graduates would be less likely to leave the areas where they obtained their university degree (Busch and Weigert 2010; Gottlieb and Joseph 2006; Ahlin et al. 2018; Núñez and Sendín 2023). Likewise, this continuous learning process in rural areas will not only bring benefits to the elderly, through an improvement in their quality of life by developing innate skills and abilities or breaking the monotony of rural life, but also to the community itself, by producing a revaluation of human capital (González-Blanco et al. 2024; EURYDICE 2001; Bosch and del Valle 2010). In the event that these specialized students do not find a job that matches their knowledge, the fact of staying in the region, even if unemployed, would represent a potential for being more productive for the economic growth of the region than the unqualified residents (Ramos et al. 2012).
However, while a correlation has been established between the accumulation of talent and an improvement in the development of countries or certain geographical areas, its regional impact may not be so evident. Several authors have pointed out that in those regions with high levels of depopulation or with low economic growth, while higher education institutions produce indirect positive externalities by enabling residents to access universities or creating alliances with local entities to promote development, their direct impact on growth would not be as clear due to the migration of graduates to other regions with more suitable job opportunities according to their education (Berry and Glaeser 2005; Andersson et al. 2009; Maleszyk 2021; Abramovsky et al. 2007). For a direct positive externality to occur, it is necessary to have a preexisting business fabric that allows taking advantage of the accumulation of intellectual capital and that allows applying it through innovative processes to other local sectors (Terluin 2003).
One possible explanation for the situation described could be related to a greater ease of interstate mobility compared to international migration. In this sense, the increase in the number of university graduates in a region with low industrial development could benefit neighboring regions with higher economic development, since it could take advantage for its own benefit of the investment in education made in other areas (Winters 2018; Ramos et al. 2012; Olejnik 2008). Thus, the research conducted by Di Liberto (2008) demonstrated that in the southern regions of Italy, there were no significant positive returns from high levels of education, as their economic growth was linked to low-tech activities, so the impact of highly skilled workers would not correspond to a real demand. In the same line, Pereira and St. Aubyn (2009) indicated that higher education in regions of Portugal would only have a positive effect on growth when the country is approaching technological leadership. So, it would be necessary to orient education towards the specific needs of each place in order to avoid problems derived from overeducation. Faggian and McCann (2009) pointed out that it is not enough to provide higher education facilities, but it is also essential to offer the right conditions in the labor market, since if the supply of qualified workers does not match the existing demand, the impact of education on economic growth may not necessarily be positive.
Therefore, if the decision to stay occurs in a small labor market with low industrial density, residents will be exposed to a higher risk of overeducation (Büchel and van Ham 2003). This mismatch between educational level and work activity would have negative effects on workers, leading to lower job satisfaction due to the lack of correspondence between the investment made in education and an underutilization of their skills, which would result in a lower productivity (Turmo-Garuz et al. 2019; Summerfield and Theodossiou 2017; Capsada-Munsech 2017; Jauhiainen 2011).

3. Case Study

Spain is one of the countries with the greatest territorial and demographic imbalances in the European Union, since although 85% of its land is classified as rural, barely 20% of its population lives there, and 42% of its municipalities are at risk of depopulation since they have less than 1000 inhabitants (European Commission 2018; Pérez 2021; Gutierrez et al. 2020; Banco de España 2020). Within this context, the regions of Castilla y León and Aragón would be particularly affected, as they have depopulation rates that even double the Spanish average, placing them in what has been called a «demographic desert» (Pinilla and Sáez 2021).
In order to contrast the hypotheses proposed, the present study has focused on evaluating the perceptions of students residing in the region of Castilla y León, being this region that stands out as an illustrative example of the phenomenon of depopulation motivated by socioeconomic factors. This region reflects the elements mentioned in the academic literature regarding the relationship between student migration and depopulation.
In line with this approach, the research participants are students enrolled at the Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED) a public higher education institution that, through its own psychopedagogical methodology, allows students to study from their places of residence, becoming thus an attractive alternative for those who are far from major population centers.
Although this study has focused on a specific geographical area, the conclusions obtained have the potential for being extrapolated to other regions in Europe, such as eastern Germany, Croatia, or southern Italy, to name a few significant cases. Given that both the characteristics of the study area and the objectives set forth can shed light on the challenges associated with the impact of higher education in areas at risk of depopulation.

3.1. Region of Castilla y León

The Autonomous Community of Castilla y León stands out as the largest region in Spain and one of the largest in the European Union. It has been classified as the fourth region with the lowest rural population density in the entire European Union, which makes it one of the main focus areas for the implementation of demographic and rural development policies by the European Union (Díez-Modino and Pardo-Fanjul 2020; Gutierrez et al. 2020). However, despite the efforts made by the different administrations, the migratory phenomenon continues to occur, especially among the younger population. It has been estimated that in the last year, 9.2 per 1000 of young people have left Castilla y León, representing a significant risk of depopulation since the region has one of the lowest rates of youth population in Spain, 18.1% (CESCYL 2023; BOCYL 2023). When examining the impact of the migration process among the population with higher education, which represents 29.4% of the total population, it becomes evident that these individuals would lead this migration process. Thus, during the period between 1992 and 2018, an increase was observed in the percentage of people with university education who decided to migrate, going from 20.1% to 60%. This information suggests that approximately one out of three young people, upon completing their university studies, will choose to move to other regions in search of job opportunities, with the capital of Spain (Madrid) being the main migratory destination for migration (González-Leonardo and López-Gay 2019, 2021).

3.2. The Universidad Nacional de Educacion a Distancia (UNED)

The Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED) was created in 1972 taking as a reference the model of the Open University of Great Britain. One of its founding objectives was to bring university education closer to remote and distant geographical areas and away from large urban centers. In order to achieve this purpose, UNED implemented a blended learning model that combines distance education with in-person education through the creation of Associated Centers of a territorial nature. These centers, located in different capital or towns, allow students to have a physical reference during their educational process by having facilities and the presence of a teacher-tutor who provides advice and support both remotely and in-person in their study task (García-Cuesta et al. 2003; Pérez Juste 1999).
It is worth mentioning that the UNED has been designated by the Spanish Government as the institution responsible for higher education in areas at demographic risk and depopulation, as reported by the Ministry for Ecological Transition and the Demographic Challenge (MITECO 2021).

3.3. Sample Space and Analysis Method

From the beginning of the study, the focus was on students from Castilla y León enrolled at the UNED in order to understand their perspective on the importance of university education in promoting rural development, as well as the causes that lead to migration from rural areas.
The educational features of the selected university have allowed access to a more diverse profile of respondents than if it had been conducted at a traditional university institution. Given the variety of students surveyed, it has been possible to obtain a broader view on the importance of education as a factor in rural development. In this way, most of the respondents belong to the two groups considered essential for rural development. On the one hand, young people study higher education and are therefore more prone to migrate. On the other hand, an intermediate generation under 50 would be considered crucial for the demographic maintenance and the economic and community development of populations due to the serious population aging in rural areas. In addition, survey participants reside both in small urban centers with less than 1000 inhabitants and in the so-called intermediate cities, which are also considered problem areas as they are affected by the depopulation process given the existing production model linked to the rural environment and are therefore considered essential for regional economic development (Molina Ibáñez et al. 2023).
With this purpose, and in order to validate the hypotheses, we posed a specific questionnaire that was designed with a total of 12 closed-ended questions grouped into three thematic sections. The first section collected personal information from the student; essentially, identifying information. The second section, titled “Education at UNED,” divided in turn into different sections, would address aspects related to the courses studied, such as difficulties to study in rural areas or interest in staying in their own place of residence once studies are completed. Finally, a third section called “Rural development” was incorporated, which explored aspects such as the main causes of depopulation, the importance of education to prevent desertion in rural areas, or the existence of a real interest by institutions in solving the problem of depopulation.
To conduct the survey, contact was established with the six territorial Associated Centers of the UNED located in the region of Castilla y León (Ávila, Burgos, Plasencia, Segovia, Soria and Zamora) with the aim of channeling the survey towards students enrolled in 2022 through the implementation of stratified probability sampling. The sample allocation by stratum has taken into account the distribution of the gender variable among those enrolled in studies in the analyzed region.
The data was collected using a mixed system with a face-to-face survey and an online survey through a self-administered questionnaire, using this combination to collect information to better reach the study population (Millar and Dillman 2011; Lesser and Newton 2016; Messer and Dillman 2011). For the personal survey, the sample was controlled according to the response rate obtained, while for the online questionnaire, it was distributed by email using the tool Google Forms (Alarco and Álvarez-Andrade 2012), thus guaranteeing the quality of the data obtained and complying with the ESOMAR (2012) regulation for this kind of survey.
Finally, the valid sample amounted to 386 individuals with a confidence level of 95% and a sampling error of less than ± 5 % (out of a total of 6137 enrolled students). At the outset, a descriptive analysis was carried out based on the frequency tables and percentage of all the intervening variables. Afterwards, a bivariate analysis was performed in which the intervening variables were crossed with the variable containing the opinion about considering an increase in the educational level of the inhabitants of this area as a solution to the problem of depopulation.
Following legal procedures, the survey conducted has not affected the fundamental rights of individuals, nor has identifying personal data. In this sense, the survey was anonymous and voluntary, with no financial incentives for its completion or any type of contact that could influence the responses.

4. Results

The survey shows that 94% of the students were younger than 60, with a uniform distribution in all categories between 18 and 39 (46%) and those between 40 and 59 (49%). In total, 57% were women and 43% were men: these percentages are in line with the profile of students enrolled on undergraduate degrees at the University. Another aspect to highlight is that most of students combine some professional activity with their university studies (74.6%) in order to improve professionally.

4.1. First Hypothesis: An Increase in University Education Can Slow Down the Process of Depopulation?

The selected items in this section (Table 1) would be those that have been identified as the main causes of depopulation in Spain, according to both national and international organizations.
An initial approach to the results obtained shows that almost 59% of the survey respondents consider that a higher level of training of inhabitants in rural areas would prevent the exodus of the population. In contrast, the remaining 41% indicated that a higher level of training would not halt the depopulation of these regions.
Regarding the causes leading to migration among university students, the so-called “hard factors” predominate, since they are the lack of job opportunities (91%) which is the main migration driver, followed by the lack of social services (84%) and the lack of infrastructure that enables economic development (79%). With respect to the so-called “soft factors”, understood as leisure and cultural activities, almost 60% consider them to be factors that foster the migratory process and are thus elements that need to be taken into account when analyzing the processes of leaving university.
In regards to the concerns of the problem of depopulation of rural areas, the students surveyed indicate an average interest (52%), while only 36% classify this as high. These figures contrast with the policies developed both by the European Union and by the Spanish Government as the so-called “Empty Spain” through the distribution of economic funding to resolve this situation.
In order to analyze the specific characteristics of the respondents related to their opinion of the importance of increasing training in the regions, a bivariate analysis has been carried out in which the opinion on a higher level of training and the rural exodus are crossed with each of the control or explanatory variables through contingency tables (Table 2) (López-Roldán and Fachelli 2015).
They determine which variables could be related to the dependent variable through the Fisher Exact Test, the strength of the connection with Cramer’s V, and in those cases in which the dependent variable has two categories, the odds ratio to see the importance of the categories in case the subject considers that it is necessary to increase training.
Regarding the age variable, although the level of dependence is low (Cramer’s V of 1.138), there is a greater prevalence of considering training as a solution in those people aged between 40 and 59 (66%). In this age group, we find the most significant differences as it concentrates those students that combine their studies with their work activity. In the rest of the groups, no dependency of age or gender on the effectiveness of the solution proposed was found. This fact suggests the existence of a consensus on the relevance of investing in higher education and developing graduates’ skills as a strategy to mitigate the effects of rural depopulation.
In relation to undertaking the End-of-Degree Project that allows the development of some professional activity in their place of residence, 73% of the students that proposed this possibility consider that an increase in training would help prevent the problem of depopulation, with a probability that is three times higher when proposing this solution than for the rest of those surveyed.
Looking at the reasons that lead to depopulation, only a lack of leisure activities is independent from the opinion that greater training could resolve the population decline. The rest of the causes analyzed are not independent from an increase in training, although the relationship is lower.
Those that feel that the causes of the problem of depopulation are down to the lack of job opportunities are 3.6 times more likely to consider that an increase in training is a good solution. For those who state that it is the lack of infrastructure that causes the depopulation process, they are 2.86 times more likely to consider training as a factor that could resolve the problem. Furthermore, the students that consider that the lack of social services or the aging population causing rural depopulation are twice as likely to also consider training as the solution to the exodus from rural areas.
Regarding the variable related to the scarcity of leisure as a factor that can influence the depopulation of rural areas, especially among the younger population, it is observed that it would be an independent variable with respect to the increase in education as a behavior pattern cannot be established by the respondents in relation to the mentioned variable.
In relation to those variables related to the scarcity of social services and the aging population as factors that would influence the depopulation process, the prevalence weight would be significantly reduced among those who claim that education could improve this taller aspect and those who do not. While both situations are considered by all students as crucial factors in the depopulation process, especially the aging of residents in rural areas that would be linked to the formation of social services, an increase in education does not seem to provide a solution to solve the problem.
The perception of the respondents regarding the interest generated by the problem of depopulation in rural areas by society is also a variable that influences their opinion of the respondents on the increase of university education as a solution to the problem. According to the results obtained, 76% of respondents who consider education to be a solution for rural development perceive a low or zero interest in this problem by society. On the other hand, in those students who believe there is a moderate or high interest in this phenomenon, this percentage would decrease to 58% and 54%, respectively. It is important to highlight that the only statistically significant category is the low or zero interest. As in the rest of the categories, a clear relationship cannot be observed, since respondents have mixed opinions on whether education can be an effective tool to tackle the desertion of rural areas.

4.2. Second Hypothesis: You Could Apply the Acquired Knowledge in a Professional Activity in Your Place of Residence

Development of Professional Activity at the Place of Residence

Faced with the possibility of focusing the End-of-Degree Project towards an activity that could be implemented in the student’s own geographical area, showing thereby an interest in staying settled in the area of residence, the data obtained has indicated the following:
Table 3. Analysis of the End-of-Degree Project.
Table 3. Analysis of the End-of-Degree Project.
VariableFrequencyPercentage
No10326.6%
Doubt10527.2%
Yes17846.1%
Total386100%
Source: Own elaboration based on survey data.
The results of Table 3 indicates that 46% of the people surveyed would show an initial predisposition to being able to develop their professional activity within their own environment, while 27% had no clear position on the matter and another 26% would reject this possibility.
To analyze the results obtained in detail, it was considered important to verify if there is any kind of relationship between the decision to stay and the academic background of the students. The academic literature has highlighted the presence of a negative correlation between these factors, especially in those graduates who have studied in the fields of science or engineering, as they have better professional opportunities away from rural environments.
In order to address this issue, the results have been categorized into three major thematic areas based on the fields of study conducted. Firstly, there is the area of Humanities which would encompasses studies such as Languages, Philosophy, History, Arts, Geography and History, and Education. A second area called Science–Engineering would include studies related to Physics, Chemistry, Psychology, as well as the different branches of Engineering. Finally, a third thematic block called Social Sciences and Law would group the training in Law, Business Administration, Economics, Sociology, Tourism, etc.
The results obtained have been the following:
Table 4. Distribution by areas of study.
Table 4. Distribution by areas of study.
Area of StudyVariableFrequencyPercentage
Humanities areaNo3828.7%
Doubt3728.0%
Yes5743.1%
Total132100%
Science–EngineeringNo3126.5%
Doubt3731.6%
Yes4941.8%
Total117100%
Social Science and LawNo3424.8%
Doubt3122.6%
Yes7252.5%
Total137100%
Source: Own elaboration based on survey data.
In these results (Table 4), no significant differences are observed between the studies carried out and the migratory inclination of the students, as similar percentages are recorded in the various migration alternatives analyzed. This tendency is especially significant in disciplines as diverse as Humanities or Sciences–Engineering, in which very comparable percentages can be noted. Therefore, it does not seem necessary to carry out a contrast test with values so homogeneous when a null hypothesis is observed. (Figure 2).

4.3. Third Hypothesis: There Is a Real Concern About the Problem of Depopulation

Delving into the existing perception of the so-called “Empty Spain,” the reasons that cause this concern have also been investigated (Table 5). Overall, the opinion is that 52% consider there is a moderate interest and 36% believe there is a high interest in this topic. Regarding the reasons that would provoke this interest, the perception of the respondents is that the main reason is predominantly political, reaching 66%, followed by the opinion that there is a real concern from society towards the “Empty Spain” with 42%. However, it is worth noting that nostalgic interest related to family origins is barely considered by 22% of respondents.
Table 5. Main Interest in the Issue of Depopulation.
Table 5. Main Interest in the Issue of Depopulation.
Concern DepopulationPercentage
Economic40.20%
Political65.80%
Real concern41.50%
Environmental awareness32.90%
Nostalgic and origins/others22.00%
Source: Own elaboration based on survey data.

5. Discussion

In relation to the first hypothesis raised about the causes of depopulation, the results obtained coincide with previous research in considering the lack of job opportunities as the main migratory reason (90.7%). This shortage of employment would be the final result of the so-called “vicious circle of decline,” originated by a series of factors whose effects have been accumulating over time and that would have its origin in the loss of a social mass that may allow the development of economic activities and investment. However, a difference detected between the results obtained and previous reports would lie in the importance given to demographic aging as a cause of rural depopulation, particularly in the Community of Castilla y León, where it is considered a primary factor for preventing generational replacement. This circumstance would also be evident when considering the lack of social services (84%) or the scarcity of infrastructure (79%) as the main causes of the migration process, which would also be a direct consequence of the decline process.
An outstanding point in the obtained results would be the position occupied by the demographic aging, considered in the region of Castilla y León as the main cause of rural depopulation that prevents a generation replacement, placing it in fourth place by respondents with 73% of those people surveyed. We consider that the position obtained would be logical, since aging does not directly affect students’ migration decisions, nor could an increase in university education modify this situation. Therefore, while the surveyed individuals have indicated hard factors as the main causes of the migration process, their importance would have a strong impact on the so-called soft factors by being decisive in the socio-economic composition of rural areas. This has led to the most part of social services being primarily directed towards the elderly population, thus hindering the creation of other activities for the younger population. This hypothesis would be reinforced when analyzing the scarcity of leisure opportunities as one of the migration factors, which would include cultural offerings or a more cosmopolitan environment, which should also be taken into consideration along with the other factors to fully understand the migration phenomenon and its implications among the younger population, despite not being sufficiently considered in the academic literature.
Regarding the hypothesis concerning the possible relationship between an increase in university education and an improvement in rural development, the results suggest that for the majority of respondents (59%), university education could slow down the population decline. This result supports the thesis of international organizations that consider knowledge as a development driver that prevents the main causes of depopulation, such as lack of job opportunities or deficiencies in infrastructure; in other words, the hard factors.
However, we consider that the real impact of a university institution on local development would be achieved in an indirect way as a result of the effects that university education provides to its inhabitants, rather than its role as a local agent directly involved in the economic development of the region. Firstly, the proximity of a university institution promotes population settlement during its formative stage, thus encouraging the subject’s long-term stay and preventing the so-called “brain drain” before the beginning of their studies, which would be one of the main reasons for the migration of young university students. Secondly, the possibility of being able to study at a hybrid or blended learning university model would allow professional activity to be combined with academic training, especially in that age range that currently sustains rural populations, causing an increase in the professional qualifications of its inhabitants permanently, since both their age and the existence of other cumulative stabilizing factors decrease the migratory possibility of students. This fact will allow for a consolidated accumulation of talent over time in areas of low economic development that would ultimately have a positive impact on the regional economy.
This hypothesis is based on two variables identified from the results obtained when checking the willingness shown by respondents to apply the acquired knowledge in their localities (46%), compared to those students who would not consider this option (27%). This interest in practicing the professional activity in their places of origin, regardless of the economic development of the area, reflects both the importance of education in adults as a factor that allows talent to be generated in depopulated regions, as well as an entrepreneurial spirit of the graduates, confirming the existing relationship between university, creativity, and self-employment. It is also important to point out that previous studies have described a higher migratory propensity among students who have studied in the field of science due to having more job opportunities in densely populated areas. The results indicate that the predisposition to stay is an independent variable from the studies pursued, as no significant differences were observed among different academic disciplines. However, one factor that we must take into consideration based on the results obtained is that 74% of the respondents are already pursuing a professional activity in their places of residence, regardless of their age, which could have significantly influenced the decision to apply the acquired knowledge in the local context. In fact, there is a variation, although not significant, in the option presented as doubt about the training received among graduates in science (31%), which we understand could be motivated by the lack of job opportunities related to their new academic training due to the absence of an entrepreneurial fabric that allows them to develop their new skills.
Another factor to highlight would be students’ opinion on the interest shown by institutions to address the issue of depopulation, considering it more of a purely political interest (65%) rather than a real willingness to solve the problem (41.2%), or an economic commitment that allows for its development (40%). Therefore, the respondents would not feel effectively supported to start entrepreneurial activities that are so necessary for regional development.

6. Conclusions

The results obtained in this study represent a progress in research that analyzes the relationship between an increase in academic education and the economic development of regions affected by depopulation. The conclusions match with different academic studies in pointing out that the main migratory reason among university students is the lack of job opportunities. However, the importance of the so-called soft factors has also been identified as an aspect that could influence the decision to leave.
Concerning the role that the proximity of a higher education center can play in rural development, most students believe that its presence could contribute to improving the economic development of the region. This importance is evidenced in facilitating access to university studies for both young people from their places of residence and individuals who combine higher education with professional activity, as they are aimed at a different audience than traditional universities. These characteristics of hybrid universities can foster a sense of belonging, a factor that has not been sufficiently taken into account in depopulation policies, as it is observed that these students are more predisposed than other types of university students to develop a professional activity through entrepreneurship in their regions.
In this way, the feeling of belonging can play a more important role than has been considered so far in the stabilization of the rural population, as there is a previous willingness of the students to develop a professional activity through entrepreneurship in their own regions, being the external circumstances beyond their control ultimately the ones that would force them to leave their homes. In this sense, it is essential for institutions not only to provide them with a higher education, but also to make investments aimed at developing their professional projects, as they believe that they have not been carried out so far due to a lack of real interest in developing these areas economically.

Limitations and Further Lines of Research

During the realization of this research, a series of limitations have been presented, such as the sample space, which despite being significant, has been reduced to a single university. Another limitation is the data protection, as certain personal aspects could not be included in the questions, they could have provided more information about the profile of the respondents. Likewise, the depopulation issue is a very complex phenomenon that requires a more multidisciplinary approach for its understanding and approaches that, due to limitations of this study, could not be carried out.
However, the results obtained provide a solid foundation for future research related to the depopulation process in Europe, which allows for identifying similarities and differences between different affected regions and how the role of higher education can contribute to improve their economic development.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.N.-M. and L.R.-F.; methodology, L.R.-F.; software, L.F.R.; validation, J.N.-M. and L.F.R. and L.R.-F.; formal analysis, L.F.R.; investigation, J.N.-M. and L.F.R.; re-sources, J.N.-M.; data curation, L.F.R.; writing—original draft preparation, J.N.-M.; writing—review and editing, J.N.-M.; visualization, L.R.-F.; supervision, L.R.-F.; project administration, J.N.-M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Ethics Committee of UNED protocol code 22-SISH-ECO-2025 date 24 of July 2025.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent for participation was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

We thank the students enrolled at the UNED in the Community of Castilla y León who participated in the survey completely selflessly.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
UNEDUniversidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia
MITECOMinisterio para la Transición Ecologica y el Reto Demográfico
ESOMAREuropean Society for Opinion and Marketing Research

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Figure 1. Flow.
Figure 1. Flow.
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Figure 2. Relative Frequencies. Source: Own elaboration based on survey data.
Figure 2. Relative Frequencies. Source: Own elaboration based on survey data.
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Table 1. University Education Can Slow Down the Process of Depopulation?
Table 1. University Education Can Slow Down the Process of Depopulation?
VariableCategoriesFrequencyPercentage
Increased training prevents depopulationYes22758.80%
No15941.20%
AgeBetween 18 and 39 years18547.90%
Between 40 and 59 years18046.60%
60 years or more215.40%
SexMan16443%
Woman22257%
Labor activityYes28874.60%
No9825.40%
Causes of depopulation:
Lack of job opportunitiesYes35090.70%
No369.30%
Lack of infrastructureYes30679.30%
No8020.70%
Lack of social servicesYes32483.90%
No6216.10%
Lack of leisureYes23059.60%
No15640.40%
Ageing populationYes28473.60%
No10226.40%
Interest perception (index)Low or none4511.70%
Medium20152.10%
High14036.30%
Source: Own elaboration based on survey data.
Table 2. Bivariate analysis with contingency tables. Dependent variable: training prevents depopulation (yes/no).
Table 2. Bivariate analysis with contingency tables. Dependent variable: training prevents depopulation (yes/no).
VariableCramer’s Phi/VOdds RatioObservations
Age0.138 *N.A.There are differences between Age: higher prevalence among those between 40 and 59 years old.
Sex0.0341.15There are no significant differences between men and women.
Labor activity0.021.1There are no significant differences if you work.
Undertaking the End-of-Degree Project0.250 ***2.87There are differences between those who have considered the possibility of directing their end-of-study work towards some activity that can be carried out in rural areas and those who have not. Higher prevalence in those who can guide you.
Lack of job opportunities0.184 ***3.66There are differences between those who believe that one of the reasons is the scarcity of job opportunities. Higher prevalence among those who consider that job opportunities are lacking.
Lack of infrastructure0.208 ***2.86There are differences between those who believe that one of the reasons is the lack of labor infrastructure. Higher prevalence among those who say there is a lack of infrastructure.
Lack of social services0.136 ***2.09There are differences between those who believe that one of the reasons is the lack of social services. Higher prevalence among those who say that social services are lacking.
lack of leisure0.0621.29There are no differences between those who consider that the cause is because there is a shortage of leisure and those who think that it is not.
Population aging0.155 **2.02There are differences between those who believe that one of the reasons is the aging of the population and those who do not. Greater prevalence among those who think that it is a reason.
Interest perception (index)0.129 *N.A.There are differences between the level of interest in unpopulated areas, with a higher prevalence among those who consider that interest is low or null.
Nota: p-value corresponds to Fisher’s Exact Test. *** p < 0.001; ** p < 0.01; * p < 0.5. Advantage ratio only in variables with two categories (not applicable-N.A.- for those with more). Source: Own elaboration based on survey data.
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Núñez-Martínez, J.; Rodríguez-Fernández, L.; Rodríguez, L.F. The Proximity of Hybrid Universities as a Key Factor for Rural Development. Soc. Sci. 2025, 14, 467. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14080467

AMA Style

Núñez-Martínez J, Rodríguez-Fernández L, Rodríguez LF. The Proximity of Hybrid Universities as a Key Factor for Rural Development. Social Sciences. 2025; 14(8):467. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14080467

Chicago/Turabian Style

Núñez-Martínez, Jacobo, Laura Rodríguez-Fernández, and Luisa Fernanda Rodríguez. 2025. "The Proximity of Hybrid Universities as a Key Factor for Rural Development" Social Sciences 14, no. 8: 467. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14080467

APA Style

Núñez-Martínez, J., Rodríguez-Fernández, L., & Rodríguez, L. F. (2025). The Proximity of Hybrid Universities as a Key Factor for Rural Development. Social Sciences, 14(8), 467. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14080467

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