Staying or Moving: Racial Differences in Single Mothers’ Residential Stability
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Background and Theory
2.1. Black Single Mothers and Urban Poverty: A Brief History
2.2. Theories of Racial Residential Stratification
- How do Black single mothers compare to White single mothers in their probability of staying in non-poor neighborhoods rather than moving to poor neighborhoods?
- How do Black single mothers compare to White single mothers in their probability of staying in poor neighborhoods rather than moving to non-poor neighborhoods?
- Does controlling for racial differences in socioeconomic, demographic, and contextual characteristics account for racial differences in who stays in non-poor or poor neighborhoods?
- 4.
- Does the probability of remaining in non-poor or poor neighborhoods for Black and White single mothers vary by economic resources?
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Dependent Variables
3.2. Independent Variables
3.3. Analytic Strategy
4. Results
5. Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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In a Non-Poor Tract at Time t | In a Poor Tract at Time t | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Black Single Mothers | White Single Mothers | Black Single Mothers | White Single Mothers | ||||||
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | ||
Dependent Variables | |||||||||
Percent remaining in a Non-Poor, Time t to t + 1 | 81.44 | 38.87 | 94.25 | 23.26 | |||||
N | 3139 | 2693 | |||||||
Percent remaining in a Poor Tract, Time t to t + 1 | 88.91 | 31.39 | 83.05 | 37.53 | |||||
N | 6877 | 755 | |||||||
Socioeconomic Characteristics | |||||||||
Family Income (in $1000s) | 25.08 | 18.43 | 35.79 | 31.95 | 18.09 | 13.91 | 18.66 | 15.16 | |
Education (in Years) | 12.08 | 2.43 | 12.43 | 2.95 | 11.36 | 2.10 | 10.49 | 3.05 | |
Employed (1 = Yes) | 0.68 | 0.47 | 0.73 | 0.44 | 0.52 | 0.50 | 0.48 | 0.50 | |
Homeowner (1 = Yes) | 0.27 | 0.44 | 0.45 | 0.50 | 0.16 | 0.37 | 0.20 | 0.40 | |
Demographic Characteristics | |||||||||
Age | 34.95 | 8.79 | 37.23 | 8.80 | 33.96 | 8.79 | 35.70 | 9.43 | |
Average Age of Children | 9.68 | 4.59 | 10.11 | 4.62 | 9.38 | 4.62 | 9.62 | 4.73 | |
Number of Children | 2.15 | 1.34 | 1.82 | 1.05 | 2.34 | 1.39 | 2.11 | 1.30 | |
Persons Per Room | 0.79 | 0.48 | 0.67 | 0.45 | 0.87 | 0.55 | 0.86 | 0.49 | |
Same House 3+ Years (1 = Yes) | 0.38 | 0.49 | 0.49 | 0.50 | 0.42 | 0.49 | 0.48 | 0.50 | |
Contextual Characteristics | |||||||||
Percent Homeowners, Tract | 57.35 | 18.97 | 62.99 | 18.52 | 35.45 | 18.89 | 36.47 | 19.00 | |
Dissimilarity, Metro | 0.65 | 0.12 | 0.65 | 0.14 | 0.70 | 0.12 | 0.65 | 0.13 | |
Percent Black Individuals, Metro | 21.55 | 9.75 | 11.87 | 9.12 | 21.74 | 9.57 | 11.23 | 7.36 | |
Percent Poverty, Metro | 11.84 | 3.32 | 11.49 | 2.86 | 12.36 | 3.33 | 13.42 | 4.74 | |
Population Size (ln), Metro | 14.40 | 1.10 | 14.23 | 1.39 | 14.57 | 1.08 | 14.48 | 1.45 | |
Percent Units Built 0–10 Yrs. Ago, Metro | 22.68 | 8.66 | 20.33 | 9.16 | 22.14 | 8.99 | 19.45 | 10.06 | |
Percent Housing Units Vacant, Metro | 7.53 | 2.57 | 7.24 | 3.96 | 7.17 | 2.40 | 7.74 | 3.82 | |
Year at End of Observation | 1990.69 | 12.60 | 1988.96 | 11.68 | 1987.44 | 11.65 | 1990.45 | 11.55 | |
Length of Observation Period | 1.32 | 0.47 | 1.23 | 0.42 | 1.21 | 0.41 | 1.23 | 0.42 | |
N of Single Parent Observations | 3854 | 2857 | 7734 | 909 |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | SE | B | SE | B | SE | B | SE | ||||||||
Single Parents | |||||||||||||||
Black Single Mothers | −0.1971 | *** | (0.0151) | −0.1527 | *** | (0.0144) | −0.1427 | *** | (0.0140) | −0.1512 | *** | (0.0149) | |||
Socioeconomic Characteristics | |||||||||||||||
Family Income (in $1000s) | 0.0002 | (0.0002) | −0.0000 | (0.0002) | −0.0001 | (0.0002) | |||||||||
Education (in Years) | 0.0120 | *** | (0.0025) | 0.0126 | *** | (0.0024) | 0.0123 | *** | (0.0024) | ||||||
Employed (1 = Yes) | 0.0436 | *** | (0.0100) | 0.0398 | *** | (0.0100) | 0.0400 | *** | (0.0100) | ||||||
Homeowner (1 = Yes) | 0.1424 | *** | (0.0118) | 0.1120 | *** | (0.0122) | 0.1126 | *** | (0.0125) | ||||||
Demographic Characteristics | |||||||||||||||
Age | 0.0053 | *** | (0.0010) | 0.0054 | *** | (0.0010) | |||||||||
Average Age of Children | 0.0045 | (0.0043) | 0.0001 | (0.0016) | |||||||||||
Number of Children | 0.0003 | (0.0016) | 0.0048 | (0.0043) | |||||||||||
Persons Per Room | −0.0365 | *** | (0.0097) | −0.0349 | *** | (0.0097) | |||||||||
Same House 3+ Years (1 = Yes) | −0.0016 | (0.0089) | −0.0020 | (0.0089) | |||||||||||
Contextual Characteristics | |||||||||||||||
Percent Homeowners, Tract | −0.0001 | (0.0003) | |||||||||||||
Dissimilarity, Metro | −0.0185 | * | (0.0079) | ||||||||||||
Percent Black Individuals, Metro | 0.0025 | ** | (0.0008) | ||||||||||||
Percent Poverty, Metro | −0.0097 | *** | (0.0025) | ||||||||||||
Population Size (ln), Metro | 0.0045 | (0.0071) | |||||||||||||
Percent Units Built 0–10 Yrs. Ago, Metro | −0.0019 | (0.0011) | |||||||||||||
Percent Housing Units Vacant, Metro | 0.0020 | (0.0024) | |||||||||||||
Year | −0.0007 | (0.0007) | −0.0018 | ** | (0.0007) | −0.0029 | *** | (0.0007) | −0.0044 | *** | (0.0011) | ||||
Length of observation | −0.0203 | (0.0165) | −0.0384 | * | (0.0163) | −0.0400 | (0.0163) | −0.0402 | * | (0.0164) | |||||
Intercept | 2.3784 | (1.3469) | 4.3249 | ** | (1.3332) | 6.2831 | *** | (1.3537) | 9.4509 | *** | (2.0933) | ||||
Variance Components | |||||||||||||||
Between MSAs | −2.7792 | *** | (0.1851) | −2.8554 | *** | (0.1789) | −2.9566 | *** | (0.1938) | −3.3725 | *** | (0.3359) | |||
Between Individuals | −1.3765 | *** | (0.0292) | −1.4835 | *** | (0.0325) | −1.5301 | *** | (0.0346) | −1.5297 | *** | (0.0345) | |||
Residual | −1.3559 | *** | (0.0113) | −1.3505 | *** | (0.0115) | −1.3471 | *** | (0.0116) | −1.3467 | *** | (0.0116) |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | SE | B | SE | B | SE | B | SE | ||||||||
Single Parents | |||||||||||||||
Black Single Mothers | 0.0287 | (0.0174) | 0.0452 | ** | (0.0144) | 0.0487 | ** | (0.0164) | 0.0519 | ** | (0.0171) | ||||
Socioeconomic Characteristics | |||||||||||||||
Family Income (in $1000s) | −0.0004 | (0.0003) | −0.0010 | ** | (0.0003) | −0.0009 | ** | (0.0003) | |||||||
Education (in Years) | −0.0099 | *** | (0.0022) | −0.0062 | ** | (0.0022) | −0.0051 | * | (0.0022) | ||||||
Employed (1 = Yes) | −0.0091 | (0.0084) | −0.0115 | (0.0084) | −0.0123 | (0.0084) | |||||||||
Homeowner (1 = Yes) | 0.0834 | *** | (0.0121) | 0.0633 | *** | (0.0122) | 0.0643 | *** | (0.0123) | ||||||
Demographic Characteristics | |||||||||||||||
Age | 0.0035 | *** | (0.0008) | 0.0035 | *** | (0.0008) | |||||||||
Average Age of Children | −0.0002 | (0.0014) | −0.0002 | (0.0014) | |||||||||||
Number of Children | 0.0004 | (0.0032) | −0.0001 | (0.0032) | |||||||||||
Persons Per Room | −0.0024 | (0.0071) | −0.0032 | (0.0071) | |||||||||||
Same House 3+ Years (1 = Yes) | 0.0222 | ** | (0.0078) | 0.0219 | ** | (0.0078) | |||||||||
Contextual Characteristics | |||||||||||||||
Percent Homeowners, Tract | 0.0002 | (0.0003) | |||||||||||||
Dissimilarity, Metro | 0.0203 | * | (0.0090) | ||||||||||||
Percent Black Individuals, Metro | 0.0001 | (0.0009) | |||||||||||||
Percent Poverty, Metro | 0.0116 | *** | (0.0021) | ||||||||||||
Population Size (ln), Metro | 0.0195 | * | (0.0089) | ||||||||||||
Percent Units Built 0–10 Yrs. Ago, Metro | −0.0006 | (0.0012) | |||||||||||||
Percent Housing Units Vacant, Metro | −0.0026 | (0.0029) | |||||||||||||
Year | −0.0013 | * | (0.0006) | −0.0007 | (0.0006) | −0.0012 | * | (0.0006) | −0.0011 | (0.0011) | |||||
Length of observation | −0.0722 | *** | (0.0147) | −0.0751 | *** | (0.0148) | −0.0759 | *** | (0.0147) | −0.0750 | *** | (0.0149) | |||
Intercept | 3.3637 | ** | (1.1084) | 2.3316 | * | (1.1300) | 3.2328 | ** | (1.1336) | 2.3901 | (2.0933) | ||||
Variance Components | |||||||||||||||
Between MSAs | −2.3933 | *** | (0.1554) | −2.4142 | *** | (0.1526) | −2.5332 | *** | (0.1620) | −2.7658 | *** | (0.2234) | |||
Between Individuals | −1.7818 | *** | (0.0460) | −1.8398 | *** | (0.0496) | −1.9482 | *** | (0.0604) | −1.9413 | *** | (0.0600) | |||
Residual | −1.2684 | *** | (0.0097) | −1.2655 | *** | (0.0098) | −1.2558 | *** | (0.0102) | −1.2577 | *** | (0.0101) |
Model 1 | Model 2 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Remain in Non-Poor vs. Move to Poor | Remain in Poor vs. Move to Non-Poor | ||||||
Black Single Mothers | −0.1944 | *** | (0.0184) | 0.0190 | (0.0231) | ||
Family Income (in $1000s) | −0.0005 | * | (0.0002) | −0.0025 | ** | (0.0008) | |
Black Single Mothers X Family Income (in $1000s) | 0.0016 | *** | (0.0004) | 0.0017 | * | (0.0008) | |
Socioeconomic, Demographic, and Contextual Controls | Y | Y | |||||
Year | −0.0043 | *** | (0.0010) | −0.0011 | (0.0011) | ||
Length of observation | −0.0425 | ** | (0.0164) | −0.0748 | *** | (0.0149) | |
Intercept | 9.3875 | *** | (2.0778) | 2.5644 | (2.1590) | ||
Variance Components | |||||||
Between MSAs | −3.4133 | *** | (0.3502) | −2.7734 | *** | (0.2245) | |
Between Individuals | −1.5435 | *** | (0.0352) | −1.9403 | *** | (0.0600) | |
Residual | −1.3448 | *** | (0.0117) | −1.2580 | *** | (0.0102) | |
N | 6711 | 8643 |
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Gabriel, R.; Polhill, P.; Waite, A. Staying or Moving: Racial Differences in Single Mothers’ Residential Stability. Soc. Sci. 2025, 14, 149. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14030149
Gabriel R, Polhill P, Waite A. Staying or Moving: Racial Differences in Single Mothers’ Residential Stability. Social Sciences. 2025; 14(3):149. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14030149
Chicago/Turabian StyleGabriel, Ryan, Peter Polhill, and Adrienne Waite. 2025. "Staying or Moving: Racial Differences in Single Mothers’ Residential Stability" Social Sciences 14, no. 3: 149. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14030149
APA StyleGabriel, R., Polhill, P., & Waite, A. (2025). Staying or Moving: Racial Differences in Single Mothers’ Residential Stability. Social Sciences, 14(3), 149. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14030149