From Suffering to Growth: A Conceptual Review of Workplace Bullying Through a Logotherapeutic Lens with Organizational Implications

Abstract

This paper presents a conceptual review of workplace bullying as a trauma, integrating psychological and existential perspectives on post-traumatic growth. The study offers a conceptual framework for comprehending existential trauma, meaning-making, and healing in the context of workplace bullying by referencing Janoff-Bulman’s shattered assumptions theory and then Calhoun and Tedeschi’s post-traumatic growth model. This theoretical foundation is further expanded through Viktor Frankl’s logotherapy, which emphasizes the value of meaning in the process of transforming suffering. An illustrative case exemplifies the existential dimensions of workplace bullying, including the disruption and reconstruction of meaning, while highlighting how logotherapeutic concepts can facilitate post-traumatic growth. This paper also offers a conceptual framework with organizational implications for future studies.

1. Introduction

Workplace bullying can lead to emotional problems and psychological trauma, impacting workers’ mental health and general well-being. The workplace bullying phenomenon is described as “harassing, offending, and socially excluding someone or negatively affecting someone’s work tasks. To label a particular activity as bullying (or mobbing), interaction or process has to occur repeatedly and regularly (e.g., weekly) and over a period of time (e.g., about six months). Bullying is an escalated process in which a person exposed ends up in an inferior position and becomes the target of systematic negative social acts” (Einarsen et al. 2011, p. 22).

The term “mobbing” was first introduced by pioneer Leymann (1996a, pp. 27, 42–43) to define workplace bullying as a kind of conflict in which targets experience a process of stigmatization and the violation of their civil rights. He categorized workplace bullying into five types: (1) threats to the target’s communication (e.g., silent treatment, being interrupted when speaking, not being listened to); (2) threats to the target’s maintaining social contacts (e.g., being isolated in a room from others, not being talked to); (3) threats to the target’s personal reputation (e.g., being subjected to rumors and calumnies); (4) discrediting threats to the target’s work (e.g., being constantly criticized, being intentionally blocked at work); and (5) threats to the target’s physical health (e.g., being given dangerous work tasks, being threatened with physical harm or being physically harmed, being sexually assaulted).

Research has consistently shown that workplace bullying is more detrimental than other job stressors, such as high job demands, decision-making power, role ambiguity, and role conflict (Hauge et al. 2010). In their meta-analytic review, Nielsen and Einarsen (2012) found that workplace bullying has significant consequences for both health and career outcomes. The association between bullying and mental health was highlighted by Verkuil et al. (2015), who demonstrated through a meta-analytic review that workplace bullying is significantly linked to psychological distress, including depression, anxiety, and psychosomatic complaints. Conway et al. (2021) also underscored that workplace bullying is a severe stressor and traumatic event that can lead to burnout, depression, anxiety, psychological distress, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Additionally, a meta-analysis conducted by Nielsen et al. (2015) revealed that, on average, 57% of workplace bullying victims exhibited PTSD symptoms. Several studies have also reported a wide range of PTSD symptoms among bullying victims (Chenevert et al. 2022; Leymann and Gustafsson 1996; Matthiesen and Einarsen 2004; Minibas-Poussard et al. 2022; Tehrani 2004).

In contrast to a single traumatic event, workplace bullying involves a prolonged period of systematic exposure to a series of unfavorable experiences. However, many victims experience high stress levels comparable to those caused by acute traumatic events (Matthiesen and Einarsen 2004; Tehrani 2004). Keashly and Neuman (2005, as cited in Lutgen-Sandvik 2008) argue that workplace bullying is traumatic because it is unexpected, persistent, and perceived as unfair and undeserving. In fact, Leymann (1996b, p. 375) referred to bullying as “psychological terror,” emphasizing the fear and dread it instills in victims. The persistent, frequent, and escalating nature of bullying is what makes it especially damaging.

The current paper aims to deliver a conceptual review of workplace bullying as a form of trauma, exploring why it poses an existential threat and how logotherapeutic principles can facilitate post-traumatic growth, exemplified through a workplace bullying case. By combining concepts rarely discussed collectively in the literature, this conceptual framework underscores the study’s originality. This study offers insights for both researchers and practitioners interested in addressing workplace bullying through a logotherapeutic lens.

2. Workplace Bullying Process, Shattered Assumptions, and Meaning Loss

The first researcher to break down the process of workplace bullying into four stages was Leymann (1996a, pp. 74–85). The first stage is the initial critical incident, which refers to everyday disputes at work that are largely ignored and unaddressed. The second stage involves bullying and stigmatization, where the target person’s equilibrium is ruined by being exposed to numerous behaviors nearly every day for an extended period of time. The third stage is personnel management; the target formally becomes a case when management steps generally misjudge the individual due to prior stigmatization. Expulsion is the final stage as a result of management’s refusal to accept accountability for the abuse and rights violations. The target is generally excluded from work either by being forced out directly (dismissal) or indirectly (sick leave or resigning).

An expansion of Leymann’s approach, Lutgen-Sandvik (2003) offered a cycle model for workplace bullying that included six stages of the bullying process. The abuser’s unfavorable attention is drawn to the target during the first phase. The second phase, known as gradual discipline, mutes and alters the target person’s experiences. The abuser escalates their negative communication with the target during the third phase, which is known as the turning point. The fourth phase of organizational ambivalence occurs when higher management joins the abuser in an attempt to lessen the victim’s suffering. During the fifth phase, known as isolation and silencing, the abuser continues to attack the victim’s reputation, successfully intimidating and terrorizing both the victim and witnesses into silence. The cycle of bullying regenerates with the last stage, expulsion. The target is separated from the organization either voluntarily or involuntarily.

The victim, who fails to resolve the conflict, attempts to prove that what happened to him is wrong. Then the aggressions and humiliations multiply; the vision of the persecutor triggers a phenomenon of fear in the target. Fear leads to pathological behaviors in the victim, which will serve as alibis to justify the aggression (Hirigoyen 2001). During this process, witnesses can become passive or active accomplices (Namie and Lutgen-Sandvik 2010). This type of social abandonment might be characterized as a secondary wave of harm. Bystander passivity can exacerbate stress in the face of workplace bullying, leading to burnout (Minibas-Poussard et al. 2025).

One of the most important theoretical models applied to highlight the psychological processes underlying the link between stressors such as bullying and mental health is the transactional theory of stress and coping (Lazarus and Folkman 1984). The core of this theoretical approach is the belief that the absence of coping strategies to manage the stressor causes strain. Since bullying is mostly characterized by an inability to cope, the transactional theory of stress and coping appears to be especially well-suited to explain why targets of bullying may have mental health issues (Conway et al. 2021). While not all stressful events are inherently traumatic, their psychological impact largely depends on how they disrupt an individual’s core assumptions and meaning systems (Park 2010).

An adverse event, such as bullying at work, can cause a person to perceive a loss of control, which contrasts sharply with the fulfillment of basic human needs, such as the belief that one’s surroundings are predictable and under control (Einarsen and Nielsen 2015). Traumatic events can destroy or shatter systems of meaning (Lazarus 1999). In this regard, Janoff-Bulman (1992) also claimed that traumatic events challenge fundamental cognitive schemas, which help to preserve meaningfulness, control, safety, and invulnerability. According to Janoff-Bulman’s Shattered Assumptions Theory (1992), individuals hold three basic assumptions about the world, other people, and themselves: the benevolence of the world, the meaningfulness of the world, and self-worth.

• Benevolence of the world: In this context, the concept of the world includes both people and events. When one assumes that people are good, helpful, and caring, and when one assumes that events are good, they believe in mostly positive outcomes and good fortune instead of bad luck. However, since generalizations are formed by experience, the benevolence of the world is related to people’s own world, or the world in which they live. People believe that their world is benevolent when they live in a positive environment with generally good people.
• Meaningfulness of the world: People frequently think that things that happen in their world have a purpose and make sense. This presumption explains why certain events occur as well as why they happen to certain individuals. This assumption satisfies the requirement to comprehend the distribution of favorable and unfavorable outcomes; a connection between an individual and their experiences is realized. This presumption reflects justice: a person deserves nice things if they are good and moral, and vice versa.
• Self-worth: Most people believe that they are morally upright, competent, and excellent people who deserve to live happy lives. A person’s positive self-worth appraisal helps them succeed and motivates them to be productive. Alongside the idea that the world has purpose, self-worth allows one to continue believing that one has the ability to influence the results.

Janoff-Bulman’s theory has been widely used to understand and explain the chronic symptoms of stress exhibited by many targets of workplace bullying (Mikkelsen and Einarsen 2002; Nielsen et al. 2017; Rodríguez-Muñoz et al. 2010). Because bullying at work destroys these underlying beliefs and because conceptual systems need stability, sudden changes in fundamental assumptions can be traumatizing.

According to Mikkelsen and Einarsen (2002), prolonged exposure to bullying at work can severely damage one’s trust in the goodness of the world and others, as well as the belief in personal control over outcomes. Furthermore, misuse of management systems and the silence or even collaboration of bystanders with the abuser can lead to injustice and feelings of betrayal, jeopardizing the importance of worldly assumptions. A phenomenological study (Reknes et al. 2014) found that the subjective experience of bullying at work ultimately weakened employees’ perceptions of their own safety and the kindness of others; impacted their perceptions of life’s meaning and value and their control over their future; and increased feelings of weakness, worthlessness, fear, and anxiety. Participants in another phenomenological study (D’Cruz and Noronha 2012) who were bullied at work eventually began to doubt their ontological underpinnings and felt alone, uncertain, existentially lonely, and worthless. It was discovered that these emotions affected the individual’s perception of their own identity and sense of self. People who were bullied at work eventually began to question their own morals and worldview.

When faced with trauma, the natural tendency of victims will be to explore the causes of the event first to reduce the gap between their previous beliefs and their negative beliefs caused by the event (Janoff-Bulman and McPherson-Frantz 1997). Post-traumatic stress resulting from victimization arises from the collapse of the basic beliefs that victims have about themselves and their world. Coping with victimization is described as a process that involves reconstructing one’s supposed world (Janoff-Bulman 2013). Janoff-Bulman’s (1992) theory has elucidated the influence of cognitive factors in post-traumatic responses, particularly in relation to trauma inflicted by others.

Janoff-Bulman (1992) asserts that traumatic events threaten to break down fundamental cognitive patterns that help maintain a sense of meaning. Because workplace bullying shatters pre-existing beliefs and stability is necessary in conceptual systems, sudden changes in core cognitive patterns can be profoundly threatening and result in trauma. As stated by Mikkelsen and Einarsen (2002) and Rodríguez-Muñoz et al. (2010), prolonged exposure to workplace bullying can profoundly threaten the assumption of the benevolence of the world and others, as well as the assumption that one is worthy of being able to control events and consequences. These fundamental presumptions form the basis of an individual’s belief that they can function well in life without worrying about the outside world harming them (Einarsen and Nielsen 2015).

People who have encountered many unfavorable obstacles in their lives claim that, paradoxically, overcoming them has improved their lives. Calhoun and Tedeschi (1998), in their theory of post-traumatic growth, allege that the individual’s first attempts to incorporate the traumatic event result in intrusions. Subsequently, the process would become more reflective, leading to constructive ruminations. The authors define ruminations as a voluntary and conscious process oriented toward a goal, such as making sense of an event, solving a problem, or anticipating a situation. This process would allow a re-examination of fundamental beliefs, creating a favorable space for the perception of positive changes. These transformations affect their vision of life and therefore their values.

Janoff-Bulman (2004) explains post-traumatic growth with existential reappraisal. Existential appraisal is a process triggered by the traumatic experience. Traumatic life events have a major impact on survivors’ assumptions about meaning. To understand this impact, it is first important to distinguish between the types of meaning that support survivors’ struggle in the aftermath of victimization: meaning as comprehensibility and meaning as significance. In the long run, trauma involves losses and gains. By recognizing the value of life, survivors actively engage in new choices and commitments that create renewed meaning in their lives. Eventually, they have moved from concerns about the meaning of life to the creation of meaning in life.

Post-traumatic growth in response to bullying can be understood as an outcome, a process, and a continuum. It includes both emotional distress and positive psychological change (Calhoun and Tedeschi 1998). Post-traumatic growth occurs in three areas: the self, relationships, and life philosophy. Five components support this growth: improved relationships, new possibilities, personal strength, spiritual change, and appreciation of life (Tedeschi and Calhoun 1996). Tedeschi and Calhoun (2004) define this process as the reconstruction of meaning subsequent to the disruption of fundamental beliefs. Growth occurs not as a direct consequence of trauma itself, but through the cognitive and emotional struggle with the new reality it imposes. Individuals may experience a renewed sense of personal strength, more profound relationships, and an expanded appreciation of life. A traumatic event can upend an individual’s fundamental beliefs and transform their life narrative, signifying a pivotal moment that shapes their future values and choices. Logotherapy may aid this process by promoting a change in attitude and helping individuals find new meaning (Tedeschi and Riffle 2016). According to Wong (2016), logotherapy helps individuals reinterpret and integrate traumatic experiences into a meaningful framework, supporting existential resilience and the discovery of personal meaning after adversity.

The concept of post-traumatic growth is rarely mentioned in the workplace bullying literature. Van Heugten et al. (2021) explain in their chapter that workplace bullying targets can attempt to get even or transcend their experiences while reconstructing their sense of self, regaining equilibrium, retrieving self-esteem, and realizing well-being.

In conclusion, workplace bullying is considered an existential threat. There are various methods within existential psychology for transforming suffering. Frankl is arguably the most well-known and influential when it comes to logotherapy. In the case of workplace bullying, this interpretative process enables individuals to assert autonomy in their responses to adversity, facilitating psychological recovery and personal growth.

3. Logotherapeutic Framework Within Workplace Bullying Case

Logotherapy, recognized as the third Viennese school of psychotherapy, was founded by Victor Frankl (1905–97) after the Second World War. Victor Frankl’s thought resides at the intersection of phenomenology and psychotherapy. Frankl’s therapy encompasses a phenomenological anthropology centered on the emotional and cognitive manifestation of meaning for each individual. Frankl established logotherapy, grounded in philosophical principles primarily influenced by Heidegger, Husserl, and Scheler. Frankl aims to provide in logotherapy accessible avenues for expressing the quest for meaning and illustrates a persistent interplay between clinical and phenomenological data, emphasizing an existential interpretation rooted in our inherently historical existence, as articulated in Heideggerian Dasein. Frankl does not offer a comprehensive phenomenology in the philosophical context. However, he refrains from limiting his clinical reality to merely psychiatric or psychodynamic viewpoints. Frankl’s existential analysis engages with Heidegger’s ontology concerning the essential examination of the structure of human Dasein, emphasizing consciousness and the awareness of mortality. Frankl, akin to Heidegger, posits that the most genuine experience of Dasein is the consciousness of its finitude. The relationship between Frankl’s logotherapy and Husserl’s phenomenology is merely indirect and occurs through the intermediary of Scheler. Frankl expresses gratitude to Husserl for his foundational contributions in the struggle against psychologism and reductionism. He takes up several aspects of Husserlian phenomenology while maintaining a critical stance. Husserl fundamentally influenced the development of the notion of transcendence. Frankl effectively utilized Husserl’s insights to create a beneficial and productive therapeutic approach by interpreting them through the lens of Scheler’s phenomenology. Utilizing Scheler’s anthropology, Frankl highlighted two specific aspects. The first was that people may learn the actual meaning of a situation by using their intuition to perceive values, which are properties of objects. The second concept posited that the body, mind, and spirit constitute the three dimensions of human existence (Kühn 2015; Le Vaou 2006).

In logotherapy, a psychosomatic dimension alone is insufficient to explain the human being. The noetic (spiritual) dimension sets humans apart from other living things. According to Sarfati (2018, p. 37), there is no dualism assumed by the noesis/psycho-soma distinction. The biological and physiological processes of the entire body, as well as the organic life found in cells, are included in the somatic dimension. The psychic dimension encompasses desires, urges, instincts, emotions, sensitivities, moods, social conditioning, and cognitions. Intentionality, creativity, values, and love are all part of the noetic dimension. Nothing is overlooked in existential analysis and logotherapy; noetic energies are evoked to alleviate psychosomatic anguish, cure psychological diseases, and address spiritual frustrations (Lukas 2002, pp. 22–23).

The fundamental tenets of logotherapy consist of three major postulates: the freedom of will, the will to meaning, and the meaning of life. Human beings are able to determine themselves according to circumstances. A human’s will for meaning will come before their will for power or pleasure. The desire for meaning and the quest for meaning are manifested by reasons for living that engage human beings in relation to themselves, to others, and to the world (Sarfati 2018, p. 76). The desire for meaning receives support from three types of values: experiential, creative, and attitudinal (Sarfati 2018, pp. 103–4).

• Experiential values relate to love, beauty, and nature. Love reveals the uniqueness of the others and is freely given, not earned (Frankl 2019, p. 195).
• Creative values involve work, creation, and commitment to defend a cause. Work connects individuality with society but doesn’t make one irreplaceable; rather, it offers the chance to be (Frankl 2019, pp. 181, 184).
• Attitudinal values refer to the stance one takes toward suffering. Meaning can also arise through enduring unavoidable pain (Frankl 2019, p. 170). Suffering awakens awareness and reminds us we are alive. These values help a person preserve dignity and inspire others by example (Frankl 2019, pp. 171–76; Sarfati 2018, pp. 213–14).

Logotherapy does not consider self-realization as the supreme goal of existence, as is the case in humanistic psychology. Man can only realize himself to the extent that he orders himself to a meaning external to him, located in the world and not in himself (Lukas 2002, p. 14).

In Frankl’s theoretical perspective, the tragic triad of suffering, guilt, and finitude is inevitable and inherent in human existence. It defines the limits of the subject-individual. It is the body and the psyche that are exposed to suffering, guilt, and finitude (Sarfati 2018, pp. 75–76). People can cope with existential anxiety by altering their perspective on suffering, guilt, and finitude since life is constantly changing. Frankl (2012, pp. 79–86) emphasized that people might undergo the tragic triad and change their perspectives to look for meaning and growth as a result. Human beings can cultivate optimism in the face of the tragic triad by searching for meaning. Existence retains meaning under all conditions, and human beings can transform tragedy. Optimism in the face of tragedy means turning suffering into human accomplishment, viewing guilt as an opportunity to change for the better, and taking responsible action in the face of life’s transience. The irreversibility of life affects the potential to find meaning (Frankl 1984, pp. 161–79).

Human beings possess “a characteristic of existence of breaking free from environmental barriers” (Frankl 2009, p. 29). The human being discovers a meaningful world by looking for something beyond himself. Motivational theories that portray humans as a closed system are in opposition to this idea. Humans look for meaning by fulfilling themselves, which goes beyond the homeostatic concept. He can only be considered fulfilled if he finds purpose in his life. It is the capacity for transcendence (Frankl 2009, pp. 29–36).

Based on phenomenology, Frankl postulates that the human being is characterized by transcendence. The actualization of transcendence occurs through self-distancing and then self-transcendence. Self-distancing includes three cognitive and affective operations: distancing from suffering, the objectification of suffering, and emotional disinvestment (Sarfati 2018, p. 41). According to Martinez-Ortiz and Flórez (2016, pp. 61–65), self-distancing encompasses the capacity for self-understanding (the ability to see oneself objectively and adopt a healthy position on such observation), self-regulation (the ability to monitor and regulate emotional and cognitive processes and to oppose the need to fight discomfort or avoid suffering), and self-projection (the ability to perceive oneself differently in the future). Self-transcendence also includes three operations: the perception of development possibilities, the revelation of possibilities, and the realization of the choice (Sarfati 2018, p. 42).

The existential triad (consciousness, freedom, and responsibility) distinguishes the human being from other living beings (Sarfati 2018, p. 77). Consciousness translates into the ability to assess and appreciate situations. The freedom resulting from the conscience is translated as an aptitude to make choices. “Human freedom is not omnipotence,” says Frankl (2009, p. 66), and he adds that freedom risks degenerating into mere arbitrariness unless it is experienced in terms of responsibility. Responsibility is the ability to account for one’s actions to actualize values. Responsibility has two connotations; it refers first to a sense of accomplishment, and it also refers to a being in front of whom we are responsible (Frankl 2009, p. 47). Freedom becomes concrete with responsibility. Existential analysis particularly aims to make individuals aware of their responsibility and the freedom to assert their power (Sarfati 2018, p. 78).

For Frankl, human existence is the starting point and goal of all therapeutic intervention. From this perspective, the historical accomplishment of every human takes place in a space of meaning with a phenomenological basis, which existential analysis must address to alleviate suffering and neurotic attitudes. Such an approach focusing on suffering wants to bring out the primordial question of meaning for human existence from a philosophy of the unconditional “yes” to life. The space of meaning is therefore time, which implies an all-encompassing view of the history of the person (Kühn 2015, pp. 193–94).

In conclusion, logotherapy transcends the boundaries of a conventional therapeutic method; it embodies a lifestyle that, when genuinely lived, fosters healing not only for oneself but also for others. As Lukas (2014, p. 129) emphasizes, “If you do not live logotherapy, you cannot use it to heal.” Living the principles of logotherapy entails offering a part of oneself so that another person may experience a healthier, more meaningful life. From this viewpoint, those impacted by workplace bullying can regain their agency, transform their suffering into a sense of purpose, and maintain resilience amidst challenges.

To illustrate the post-traumatic growth in the logotherapeutic lens, the following case presents an existential analysis of a workplace bullying experience. This illustrative case shows how logotherapeutic principles—meaning in suffering, freedom of choice, responsibility, self-distancing, and self-transcendence—can guide an individual through psychological pain toward resilience and post-traumatic growth. Before presenting the case,

Table 1. Summary of Logotherapy Concepts.

Dimensions	Logotherapy Concepts	Descriptions
Anthropological Foundation	Body–Psyche–Noetic (Spiritual) Dimensions	Human existence consists of three ontological levels; the noetic is central.
Fundamental Tenets of Logotherapy	Freedom of Will, Will to Meaning, Meaning of Life	Core assumptions about human dignity, agency, and purpose as the foundations of existential motivation.
Pathways to Meaning	Experiential, Creative, Attitudinal Values	Three avenues to discover meaning: experience, contribution, and stance toward suffering.
Tragic Triad	Suffering, Guilt, Death	Inevitable existential givens, when confronted meaningfully, can foster growth.
Existential Triad	Consciousness, Freedom, Responsibility	Facets of the human spirit that enable self-awareness, authentic choice, and a sense of responsibility for one’s existence.
Mechanisms of Transformation	Self-Distancing, Self-Transcendence	Noetic processes through which meaning is actualized and suffering transformed.

provides a concise overview of the key logotherapeutic concepts and their interrelationships within Frankl’s framework.

3.1. Illustrative Case Example

This illustrative case1 aims to exemplify the existential trauma and the process of post-traumatic growth in the setting of workplace bullying, analyzed through a logotherapeutic perspective. The inclusion of this case serves to bridge theory and application rather than to report original empirical findings. The case illuminates the conceptual links among workplace bullying, existential trauma, post-traumatic growth, and logotherapy, showing how individuals may confront adversity and transform suffering into growth within the framework of existential analysis. It was not intended to evaluate therapeutic outcomes but to provide a vivid, practice-oriented example grounded in theory. While the manuscript is primarily a conceptual review, this illustrative example aligns with the approach proposed by Reddy and Agrawal (2012), who highlight the legitimacy of using cases derived from secondary sources within conceptual research.

When compiling this case, a phenomenological approach was employed to analyze the participant’s lived experience, emphasizing subjective significance and emotional reality (Van Manen 1990). Two in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted based on Seidman’s (1998) principles and analyzed based on logotherapeutic concepts (Marshall and Marshall 2022). The first interview enabled the participant to articulate his experiences, while the second elucidated and intensified emerging themes. Ethical norms, including informed consent, confidentiality, and the right to withdraw, were rigorously upheld. No audio recordings were made at the participant’s request; detailed notes were taken during and immediately after each session, each lasting about two hours. The narrative was later reviewed with the participant for validation. Care was taken to retain his own words and style, reflecting the authenticity of his experience.

3.2. Gabriel’s Case2

Gabriel is a professor at a conservatory. His students respect him for his expertise and take pride in their success after graduation. However, his relationship with one particular student, Alfred, took an unfortunate turn. Gabriel is 62 years old. He is married, and his wife is a tremendous support for him.

Gabriel had known Alfred since he was 14. Alfred was a quiet, introverted, but disciplined teenager. He always got the support of his teachers. During his third cycle at the conservatory, he married a fellow student. Regrettably, Alfred’s wife suffered a severe and irreversible illness shortly after their marriage, necessitating constant care. Struggling to cope financially, Alfred faced significant hardships. Out of compassion, Gabriel recommended to the conservatory director that Alfred be hired as an assistant to provide him with a stable income.

With Alfred’s arrival, Gabriel initially felt relieved, as he had a heavy teaching schedule. Alfred took charge of younger students, allowing Gabriel to focus on more advanced ones and dedicate more time to concerts. As the number of advanced students grew, they were divided into two groups: one under Gabriel’s supervision and the other under Alfred’s. However, Gabriel remained solely responsible for testing and end-of-year auditions. Over time, he began facing unexpected difficulties in communicating with Alfred’s students; they ignored his instructions, skipped rehearsals, and reacted negatively to any feedback. Perplexed by their behavior, Gabriel started questioning what was happening.

Finally, Gabriel found the answer through a former student, who told him, “Alfred makes up stories about you, saying that you mistreated and despised the students, even that you beat the younger ones.” Gabriel began to understand why Alfred’s students reacted the way they did. Alfred had manipulated them. He spread false stories to parents, claiming that Gabriel restricted access to classrooms and gave exam materials to his students first. Alfred also fabricated tales of success—concert offers, recognition from parents, and opportunities to transfer to other conservatories.

Gabriel spoke with the director, and together they confronted Alfred. He denied everything, crying, saying, “You are like a father to me. How could I do this kind of thing? You broke my heart.” Nothing changed; events continued as before. Alfred’s stories made Gabriel uncomfortable, and he started losing his temper. He yelled at Alfred several times in the hallways and even accidentally stepped on him once. These angry outbursts gave Alfred a perfect opportunity to manipulate their colleagues, especially those who didn’t really know Gabriel. As a result, Gabriel’s colleagues distanced themselves from him. Fear took hold of him. He dreaded going to the conservatory, afraid of hearing yet another false story Alfred had spread while he was teaching elsewhere. Since their work required collaboration for exams and end-of-year concerts, Alfred always found ways to put Gabriel in difficult situations in front of others.

The director took the initiative to end the collaboration between the two teachers. He believed Gabriel, but there was nothing solid to prove bullying at work. Gabriel was relieved. Alfred and Gabriel were independently formulating the questions, while the director was coordinating the examination. The support provided by the director and the atmosphere at the other conservatory where he taught had increased his coping power. Additionally, his wife, a professional from the business life, provided substantial support to him. Despite his concern about the problems Alfred could cause every time he went to the conservatory and the critical looks of his colleagues, Gabriel successfully concluded that semester. Upon recognizing his inability to manage the heightened stress and anxiety resulting from the departure of the director and the arrival of a new one, he sought assistance from a psychologist3 specializing in logotherapy in a desperate bid for support.

With the arrival of a new director, everything returned to how it had been before. Alfred even managed to manipulate the new director against Gabriel. As time progressed, Alfred’s bullying behaviors escalated, including intruding into Gabriel’s classroom, encouraging Gabriel’s own students to undermine him, disseminating defamatory rumors, and engaging in provocative acts in shared spaces. Some colleagues realized the extent of the bullying, but they chose to remain silent. He was in distress, lost motivation, and struggled to go to the conservatory. He was unhappy with his performance but tried his best to hide it. Requesting a transfer was impossible with only two years left before retirement. He felt trapped. His stress manifested physically, causing severe stomach pains. For two years, he continued working under extreme stress. He did not react; he simply did his job and left immediately. He avoided communication with anyone. But what hurt him the most was the attitude of others; they knew everything yet remained indifferent.

He eventually retired after working under the pressure of flashbacks from traumatic events he experienced (Alfred’s bullying behaviors and his colleagues’ adverse reactions), the new manager’s negative attitudes, and the necessity to endure until retirement.However, he continues to teach at another conservatory after his retirement. Music is everything to him. Contributing to the artistic success of his students remains a great pleasure.

3.3. Logotherapeutic Reflections on Gabriel’s Experience

Logotherapy is a meaning-centered form of psychotherapy that guides individuals towards rediscovering purpose in life. It is closely intertwined with existential analysis, as both approaches are fundamentally rooted in the same theoretical framework (Marshall and Marshall 2022, p. 223). According to Sarfati (2018, pp. 10–13), existential analysis develops a complete reflection on the human being, which establishes the theoretical frameworks of logotherapy. It is a question of defining one or more orientations of meaning.

According to logotherapy, existential analysis can be defined as “a verbal and intellectual activity that engages the psychic sphere, with its emotional and mnemonic layers; but it can also call upon imagination, involving the subject’s representational faculties” (Sarfati 2018, p. 15). As Frankl said, existential analysis is not an analysis of existence but an analysis of the subject based on the situations of existence. The goal of existential analysis is to clarify, validate, and explain the inherent value and dignity of the person despite their suffering. An existential analyst aims to (Marshall and Marshall 2022, p. 224)

• emphasize values that emerge freely during the dialogue, which allows for meaning;
• encourage reestablishing a connection with one’s core self to restore fundamental trust;
• reestablish a connection with one’s true self to boost trust;
• stimulate the will to meaning to produce a creative and significant response.

Existential analysis begins with the reality of suffering. Every life contains obstacles, challenges, and difficulties. Life confronts what Frankl called the tragic triad of human existence: pain, guilt, and death. In addition, the transformation of value into counter-value constitutes the main reason for noogenic neurosis, which results from a loss of meaning (Sarfati 2018, pp. 116–17).

Gabriel is a teacher who cares deeply about others, enjoys sharing his knowledge, and takes pride in seeing his students flourish. Before experiencing workplace bullying, he found fulfillment in his career. However, the bullying prevented him from living in alignment with his values. Teaching at the conservatory without being able to share his passion felt like a betrayal of what mattered most to him. Gabriel experienced profound suffering due to the betrayal of someone he had helped, which led to deep frustration. He also felt guilt both for his inability to manage his relationships with colleagues and for his angry reactions to Alfred in the hallways. However, the destruction was not his career itself but rather his reputation. The repeated frustrations caused by Alfred and his colleagues eventually led him into existential distress.

In the absence of meaning, the intensity and duration of the event may vary and impact the existential experience. This experience can manifest in different forms along a spectrum: existential struggle, existential frustration, existential distress, existential vacuum, and noogenic neurosis (Marshall and Marshall 2022, p. 125). Existential struggle arises when universal values are violated, leading to a loss of trust. Existential frustration occurs when a person’s will to meaning is blocked. A longstanding existential frustration can lead to existential distress. An existential distress can be defined as a feeling of futility (Marshall and Marshall 2022, p. 168). In more severe cases, this can develop into an existential vacuum, marked by a feeling of purposelessness and meaninglessness (Frankl 1984, p. 125).

At the psychological level, Gabriel’s several symptoms indicate PTSD: irritability and anger in the presence of Alfred, avoidance, psychological distress, loss of motivation, feeling blocked, flashbacks, and withdrawal from the social environment of the conservatory. A man’s worry, and even his despair about the value of life, is an existential distress. There were even repercussions at the somatic level: stomach pain, described by Gabriel as a punch from outside. The situation is worsened by the insensitivity of those around him, and Gabriel enters a state of distress that leads him to seek professional help to avoid an existential vacuum.

At the noetic level, a big problem concerns the two assumptions of Janoff-Bullman: the world is benevolent, and the world is meaningful. While Gabriel never questioned his own personal worth, he lost faith in the meaningfulness of human relationships, especially within his professional environment. He was aware of the impossibility of transferring to other conservatories and the difficulty of proving the bullying. Despite the diminished significance of his professional role, he retained the essence of his artistic endeavors; he persisted in instructing at an alternative conservatory, exemplifying perseverance and profound dedication to his art.

In the face of tragedy, a human being is able to turn suffering into achievement, find opportunities for positive change from guilt, and take responsible actions based on life’s transitory nature. Frankl (2012, pp. 17–24) highlights the evocative nature of suffering that confronts people with the questions of meaning. He outlined three ways in which the meaning can be found with the value triad—experiential, creative, and attitudinal values. In Man’s Search for Meaning (Frankl 1984, p. 66), Frankl said that “everything can be taken from a man but one thing: the last of the human freedom—to choose one’s attitude in any given set of circumstances.” Attitude values are the positions we take in our spirit regarding events over which we have no control. Given how we respond to our suffering, we may still realize worth and contribute something to the world that is unique to us. It is the highest achievement a human being may strive for when facing inevitable hardship. Seeing the pain in the tragic triad of human existence enables us to see how the dynamism of spirit is impacted by suffering in the physical and mental dimensions. By contrasting pain with the value triad, existential dialectics are rekindled, and personal values can be highlighted (Marshall and Marshall 2022, pp. 187–89).

Gabriel eventually reconnected with his values and sources of meaning. His continued artistic activity (creative and attitudinal values) served as a buffer against the impact of bullying. Performing in concerts and teaching at another conservatory prevented his distress from worsening (creative and attitudinal values). When he recognized that he could no longer manage the situation, he sought professional psychological support (attitudinal value). As he never stopped producing and creating, he was able to remain connected and to maintain good relationships with his own students (experiential value). He recognized his wife’s support during this period (experiential value). His awareness of his values made his journey from suffering to achievement, from guilt to responsibility, and from finitude to life possible.

Responsibility is a pathway to finding meaning. Responsibility is the fundamental character of human existence and can be exercised here and now. To act responsibly, one must act logically, consequently, and in accordance with their values, anticipating the consequences of their actions and how they will affect other people (Frankl 2012, pp. 4–6). Responsibility is connected to freedom. Freedom is defined as the area of the limited, susceptible, and imperfect human being’s world where they can actively create their life and make decisions. Feelings of emptiness and frustration result from freedom without responsibility (Marshall and Marshall 2022, pp. 229–30). As said in Sarfati (2018, p. 215), loving, committing, and transmitting are three human ways to concretize one’s awareness and freedom in taking responsibility. From the tragic triad of human existence, Frankl proposed some questions that lingered on the minds of each person: How is it possible to say yes to all that? How is it possible to find meaning under all conditions? In the tragic triad, people struggle to determine what they can realistically expect from life. Frankl urged shifting focus to the efficient question, “What does life expect from you in this moment, in this situation?” (Marshall and Marshall 2022, p. 225). Existential analysis particularly aims to make individuals aware of their responsibilities and the freedom to assert their powers as subjects (Sarfati 2018, p. 78).

Gabriel recognized that his responsibility was not to correct Alfred’s musical and behavioral mistakes; that was the director’s role. Instead, he focused on what truly mattered: his own students’ progress, his connection with his family, and his artistic contributions. He always had a good relationship with his students, and they considered themselves lucky to work with him. Even though they heard these events, their attitude towards Gabriel did not change, and they expected contributions from their teacher in terms of both music and preparation for life. He could not let them down; he could not withhold his knowledge from them. It was a responsibility taken on before he became frustrated to be able to practice his profession and not to compromise his retirement. His wife was his biggest support; he couldn’t leave her alone. His awareness of responsibilities has made him conscious that life exists outside the confines of bullying. This is the portal that grants access to liberation.

Self-distancing helps individuals realize meaning potentials. According to Frankl (2019), self-detachment is the ability to step back and see oneself from a different perspective. Our capacity for self-distancing manifests in the “defiant power of the human spirit” and in the creative ways of approaching a situation, including with humor. As a metacognitive ability, self-distancing enables us to view ourselves from other angles. As a result, self-distancing is necessary for reflexive thinking to become more self-aware, open-minded, mindful, and empathetic (Marshall and Marshall 2022, p. 230).

Through professional help, Gabriel gained self-distancing, allowing him to see his experiences from a broader perspective and revise his life purpose. He would never understand why Alfred did these things. He should stop questioning the things he did or didn’t do to deserve these abusive behaviors. He should also stop understanding what Alfred’s pathology was. His colleagues’ disbelief was not his fault. Deserving was not a question here. This is called workplace bullying. The books and cases he read on this subject enabled him to go even further. What was important to him? His most important goal was to continue his existence at the conservatory, where he was a permanent staff member, until his retirement. For this, he had to continue doing his job without any reaction. The environment was toxic, and he couldn’t remediate it. In the second conservatory, he felt free from this bullying story because his musical efficacy was recognized. The real self-distancing came after the retirement, that is, with physical distancing. After retirement, he reflected on why he had been so willing to help Alfred. This self-awareness led him to detach from the pain of the past and move forward.

Self-transcendence is one of the characteristics of existence, which means that the human being goes beyond his environment towards the world; even more, he goes beyond his being with a view to a duty to be (Frankl 2017, p. 88). It is the ability to act for the benefit of someone in need of care and to transcend oneself. Being connected to something or someone more significant than one’s own life brings forth a new sense of selflessness. Self-transcendence is a result of the will to meaning and cannot be coerced. Having the existential courage to live as you were intended to be is what it means to transcend yourself (Marshall and Marshall 2022, p. 231).

Ultimately, Gabriel’s love for teaching and his students’ achievements overshadowed the bullying experience. He was happy to transmit everything he knew about music and to see the students’ achievements on the scene. Helping future generations of musicians mattered far more than past injustices. After the logotherapeutic autobiography work, this bullying experience, even though it lasted for two years, was very tiny in his entire life. The bullying incident seemed even less significant to him, especially when he considered that he would perform musically in the coming years. This sad event he experienced made no difference in terms of raising his students, transmitting what he knew, and preparing them for the future. Although Gabriel still carries some residual bitterness from the experience, he takes solace in knowing that sharing his story may help others facing workplace bullying.

The process of existential analysis employs existential dialectics. Vulnerability is contrasted with intactness, and areas of fate are contrasted with areas of freedom. Situations over which we have little or no control are set against possibilities for choice and transformation. The resources of the human spirit are mobilized in response to unalterable facts: what is lost through pain, guilt, or death is contrasted with what is left through what is possible. By cultivating awareness of these dialectics, apparent contrasts between crucial existential givens can be reconciled within a higher dimension of meaning. Logotherapy broadens the perspective of the horizon of meaning waiting to be actualized. Through existential analysis, existential facts are related to possibilities: pinpointing areas where freedom remains, identifying values, highlighting meaningful aspects, recognizing what is left, and exploring new perspectives (Marshall and Marshall 2022, p. 233–24).

For Gabriel, the once-promising musical career that could have ended entirely due to bullying instead transformed into a life of continued creativity and meaningful contribution beyond himself.

4. Discussion

This conceptual review aims to examine workplace bullying as an existential trauma and to investigate how logotherapeutic principles can facilitate post-traumatic growth. Although shattered assumptions and workplace bullying have been studied by bullying researchers, it is rare to bring these concepts together with post-traumatic growth and logotherapy. This integration constitutes the main contribution of the paper, offering both theoretical insights and practical guidance for researchers and practitioners interested in understanding and addressing the existential impact of workplace bullying. It should be noted that the illustrative case was included solely to concretely exemplify theoretical constructs discussed in this review. Based on secondary data, the case is revisited from a logotherapeutic and existential perspective to bridge theory and application.

Trauma resulting from workplace bullying can manifest through a wide range of psychological, emotional, and physiological symptoms, including emotional distress, physical complaints, reduced work performance, and, in more severe or prolonged cases, symptoms resembling post-traumatic stress disorder. Phenomenological research (D’Cruz 2010; D’Cruz and Noronha 2012) reveals how workplace bullying can severely disrupt personal identity, fragmenting one’s narrative continuity and leading to disconnection, insecurity, and existential disequilibrium. As Leymann (1996b) asserts, the psychological symptoms displayed by individuals exposed to bullying must be understood as a “normal response to an abnormal situation.”

The case presented in this study meets the established criteria for workplace bullying as defined by Leymann (1996a, p. 27) and Einarsen et al. (2011, p. 22), characterized by repeated and persistent negative acts occurring at least weekly over a period of six months or longer. The bullying experienced sought not only to undermine the target’s personal and professional integrity but also to isolate him, depriving him of a sense of belonging and connection (Leymann 1996a, pp. 42–43). The case exemplifies the intricacy of the target’s psychological and existential experience. Initially, the person experienced emotional confusion, struggling to understand the unfolding events. Anger and a sense of insensitivity from others further exacerbated the distress. Bystander passivity can act as a supplementary social stressor that intensifies the psychological damage caused by workplace bullying (Ng et al. 2022). Consequently, the target in the case began to develop maladaptive coping strategies, which generated additional negative feedback from the environment. This interaction between internal distress and external invalidation intensified the victim’s sense of guilt and emotional pain. Coping strategies can have a significant impact on the relationship between workplace bullying and its outcomes, as noted by Van den Brande et al. (2021). Emotion-focused coping is one of the most employed coping behaviors against bullying, used increasingly as victims are exposed to bullying for longer periods (Forte et al. 2006). Emotion-focused coping strategies may impair employee well-being because they are maladaptive patterns of coping style (Nielsen and Knardahl 2014). In exposure to trauma, ineffective and maladaptive coping behavior may increase the risk of PTSD reactions (Cohn et al. 2011). The case illustrates the psychological trap reinforcing the negative effects of bullying.

Galani (2021) emphasizes the importance of adopting a logotherapeutic perspective in understanding the deeper impacts of workplace bullying, particularly its effect on personal identity. D’Cruz and Noronha (2012) describe how individuals engage in “identity work” as a form of psychological reconstruction, whereby they attempt to re-establish coherence and meaning in their life stories. This process involves efforts to restore existential stability and recover a sense of self-narrative integration following the destabilizing effects of bullying.

Within the framework of logotherapy, the responses of those exposed to workplace bullying are conceptualized as signs of existential frustration or distress, rather than as pathological symptoms. Logotherapy does not focus primarily on symptomology; rather, it seeks to assist individuals in discovering meaning within suffering. From this perspective, trauma can be a trigger for personal growth and living authentically. Prior research substantiates the significance of logotherapy in promoting post-traumatic growth and augmenting individuals’ resilience in the face of adversity (Lantz 1996; Sarfati 2016; Schulenberg et al. 2014; Southwick et al. 2016). Logotherapy has also been shown to alleviate PTSD symptoms by helping individuals reconstruct meaning and restore a sense of coherence following trauma (Gilmartin and Southwick 2004; Smith 2012; Southwick et al. 2006). Through its emphasis on meaning-making and attitudinal change, logotherapy enables trauma survivors to reinterpret their experiences in ways that foster resilience and psychological integration.

In the above-mentioned studies, logotherapy has mostly been applied to trauma cases involving a confrontation with death or life-threatening situations. In such contexts, trauma arises from facing one’s own mortality. However, workplace bullying represents a different form of existential threat. It does not stem from a single catastrophic event but from repetitive and escalating exposure to psychological harm. What makes workplace bullying traumatic is its gradual erosion of meaning, dignity, and self-worth over time. Even without a literal encounter with death, the target experiences a symbolic finitude—a slow loss of vitality, hope, and perceived life possibilities. From a logotherapeutic standpoint, this persistent confrontation with one’s limitations and the fragility of meaning constitutes an existential trauma in its own right.

D’Cruz and Noronha (2018) outline two ways by which the targets can address bullying at work. Firstly, people’s perceptions of the resources at their disposal are enhanced when they interact with both external (formal and informal support) and internal (personal qualities) resources. The reciprocity and duality of internal and external resources bolster resilience. Secondly, appraisal and coping help individuals achieve positive results such as feelings of inner strength, empowerment, personal growth, and well-being.

In this context, logotherapy can assist individuals in identifying their internal and external resources, cultivating a sense of meaning and personal responsibility in the face of adverse experiences. This approach enables the target to make autonomous choices and adopt an active stance toward challenges. Logotherapy provides a profound and meaningful framework for understanding and addressing the complexities of human existence. In the case presented, this process is illustrated concretely: the individual began to regain psychological clarity upon recognizing his experience as workplace bullying. This insight allowed him to critically reassess his attitudes, reevaluate his personal and professional goals, and reconnect with a sense of agency. By consciously engaging with logotherapeutic principles, he exercised freedom of choice and responsibility, actively seeking meaning despite prolonged exposure to adversity. Through self-distancing and self-transcendence, he transformed suffering into understanding, enabling personal growth. This journey demonstrates post-traumatic growth as a dynamic process, encompassing not only resilience and renewed purpose but also positive changes in the self, relationships, and life philosophy (Tedeschi and Calhoun 1996). By finding meaning in his suffering, the individual transformed a traumatic experience into constructive action and contributions to others, illustrating the practical and transformative potential of logotherapy.

As Lukas (2014, p. 52) poignantly reminds us, “The true heroes of life are not the triumphant victors, but the defeated who find a ray of hope.” This strong statement sums up the essence of the participant’s journey and is quite similar to the main ideas of logotherapy, which stress that people may discover purpose and hope even when things are tough.

In conclusion, the transformative perspective is grounded in the fundamental tenets of logotherapy, which can be summarized as follows: Life retains meaning under all circumstances, even those involving suffering; the pursuit of life’s purpose is the primary motivational force in humans; and individuals possess the freedom to choose their attitudes, even in the face of unchangeable circumstances. These principles translate into several therapeutic tools that can support recovery from bullying as workplace trauma:

• Meaning in suffering: Encouraging individuals to identify value or purpose within their suffering, thus enabling the transformation of pain into growth.
• Freedom of choice: Reinforcing the individual’s capacity to determine their responses, independent of external constraints.
• Responsibility: Promoting a sense of accountability for one’s choices, thereby restoring agency and control.
• Self-distancing: Cultivating reflective distance from one’s experience to reduce emotional reactivity and enhance resilience.
• Self-transcendence: Supporting the pursuit of goals and values beyond the self, fostering a deeper sense of meaning through contribution and connection.

Logotherapy gives us a complete way to understand and deal with the existential parts of workplace bullying as a type of trauma. Helping people provide meaning to their experiences leads to post-traumatic growth and psychological strength. Rather than pathologizing the individual’s responses, logotherapy affirms the human capacity for self-determination and authentic existence. Bullying at work is not only a psychosocial issue but also an existential one. In this context, logotherapy offers a philosophy for a healthier life.

5. Limitations and Organizational Implications for Future Studies

This paper is limited to a conceptual review, aiming to bridge the literature on workplace bullying, existential trauma, post-traumatic growth, and logotherapy. An illustrative case is presented and analyzed through a logotherapeutic lens to exemplify post-traumatic growth within the context of workplace bullying. The objective was not to empirically test the effects of logotherapy but to provide conceptual insights and suggest directions for future research and practical implementations.

The case demonstrates that workplace bullying is not merely a dyadic issue between perpetrator and target but a systemic phenomenon shaped by witnesses, managerial actions, and organizational context. While logotherapy has traditionally emphasized individual meaning-making, its principles can be applied at the organizational level. Studies suggest that organizations can proactively promote meaning-making among employees, thereby improving both individual and collective results.

On an individual level, Pattakos (2010) emphasizes that integrating logotherapy concepts into work life practices has considerable potential to enhance employee well-being. Pattakos and Dundon (2017) stress the need to create collaborative, value-driven environments where personal fulfillment and organizational goals are in line with each other. Bazargan-Sabet et al. (2024) show that logotherapy interventions can improve job satisfaction and organizational-based self-esteem, indicating benefits for workplace well-being. At the leadership level, Scholtz et al. (2015) demonstrate that meaning-centered development interventions can shift leaders’ focus from career ambition to a sense of calling. This means that organizations can use Frankl’s teachings as a way to help leaders develop in a way that is in line with their purpose. Burger et al. (2008, 2012) highlight that embedding meaning-oriented practices within organizational structures fosters engagement, inclusion, and resilience, suggesting that logotherapy can serve as a framework for organizational development.

Workplace bullying not only affects individual well-being but also has significant organizational consequences. Research consistently shows that workplace bullying is associated with increased absenteeism, presenteeism, and turnover intentions (e.g., Hoel et al. 2020), outcomes that undermine productivity, erode team cohesion, and elevate organizational costs. Moreover, workplace bullying can violate employees’ psychological contract (Rousseau 2003); when employees perceive that the organization has failed to meet its obligations, this sense of “debt owed” (Poirot 2024) can hinder inclusion and engagement. In contrast, Farley et al. (2023)’s study highlights that organizational support and leadership styles are critical in buffering the negative effects of workplace bullying. Managerial competencies are crucial in alleviating the interaction between organizational stressors and workplace bullying that can lead to PTSD symptoms (Chenevert et al. 2022). Maitlis (2020) confirms that social support at work plays a crucial role in the development of post-traumatic growth. Leaders’ supportive and empathetic behaviors can facilitate employees’ stress management and foster post-traumatic growth (Wood et al. 2020). From a logotherapeutic standpoint, promoting post-traumatic growth in employees via meaning-making processes can improve inclusion and engagement, thus alleviating certain detrimental organizational consequences of workplace bullying.

Future studies might explore how logotherapeutic knowledge can be operationalized within workplace health management and educational programs, examining multilevel interventions that integrate meaning-making to improve employee well-being and enhance organizational vitality.