Multilevel Continua of Mothers, Fathers and Childless Women and Men’s Work–Life “Choices” and Their Constraints, Enablers and Consequences
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Theoretical and Empirical Background
1.2. Societal, Organisational, Community and Household-Level Contexts
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. “Choices” Facilitating Life and Compromising Work
3.1.1. Life–Work “Freedom”: Resigning and Taking a Stand
So, it’s a dual thing … I feel ill because I don’t feel right about the mission … And I’m working hard making myself feel ill, but it was pointless.[Childless woman]
I’m one of the lucky ones who’s able to go … We’re in a reasonable space financially … I’ve got enough [professional] benefit.[Childless woman]
I know somebody who has a very ill child … it’s typical for him to [work] on the weekends, and long days at work. And he’s really cut up about this child … and really stretched. He wishes he could leave, but he can’t … because he’s the sole breadwinner.[Childless woman]
Having a mortgage and a kid … Because [ComCo] pays well, it limits you in changing [employers] to suit your life.[Father]
The flexibility is what kept me doing it so long because I can be a mum but still get my job done … I could go to another company, but with all the flexibility, would I want to change that? Even though it’s a lot of hours … the flexibility makes it for me.[Mother, manager]
I feel like it’s completely inappropriate to compromise what I’m getting out of work to … be a mother … but I also think, I’m a financial provider now. At times, I feel like I’m selling out on my values to support my family … I just have to be comfortable with that.[Mother]
3.1.2. Working Part-Time
When I did come back [from parental leave] part-time then full-time, a lot of people were surprised … and I’m sure had opinions … which were never shared.[Mother]
[I came] back four days a week, took a, 20 per cent pay cut and contributed the same amount I would over a full-time workload.[Mother]
Not being promoted as I’m part time, on more than one occasion.[Mother]
Someone recently left because her manager said, ‘You either need to go full-time or resign.’ … [Another colleague] couldn’t work in a particular team because the preference was to only have full-time people, and she wanted to work three days a week … Her manager said, ‘If you want a promotion, you need to up your hours.’ … And she said, ‘I’ve been at this salary grade for a substantial period of time. I think my capabilities are more than that.’ … And they said, ‘To take that step, you need to go full-time.’ And she wasn’t in a family position to do that.[Mother]
[As a father] you’d be able to [work part-time] … I think it would limit your career … It’s so different to what everyone else is doing that it would definitely be noticed … I was talking about people that were seen as being ambitious getting promoted. I think suddenly that would be putting family in front of work … I would feel nervous doing that if I wanted to continue to grow my career … I don’t think [mothers] stand out so much.[Father]
A part-time job is hard enough to get for parents. To take one … would suck for people who really need it.[Childless woman]
3.1.3. Limiting Working Hours to Approximately Usual Business Hours
It would be easy to do long hours and get sucked into that trap, but maybe being a mum and a single parent is good because it forces me … to leave at a certain point … I make a conscious effort now, don’t take my laptop home, because then I can’t do it.[Single mother]
I think it’s noticed when you’re leaving at a certain time … You’re not 100 per cent aware of the way people think about it. But you pick up on it in something your manager said to you, ‘cause someone said something to your manager.[Childless man]
If you’re doing something, do it properly … But I can’t work 24 h a day. So I’ve just got to prioritise … and everything else has to wait.[Mother]
3.1.4. Containing Excessive Workloads and Working Hours
I work more efficiently and accurately to have time for my family. Instead, I’m given more work from other roles … with no pay increase.[Father]
I’m not sure I fully take advantage of downtimes … you get pulled into other things … I’ve learned to be firmer when I need that time.[Childless man]
I’m in a position where I feel confident to say no [to late meetings] … If it was someone senior, I would definitely make time.[Father]
There’s no way I could [work longer hours] with children and a husband [working in a demanding role].[Mother]
You have opportunities to demonstrate abilities in [late night] working groups … But I still have to get up to get children ready and work and be further exhausted. So, I’ve said, ‘I don’t want to be on these working groups.’ It’s certainly impacted my reputation.[Mother]
I don’t go out as much or hang out after work hours, otherwise I miss [child] for the day … I’d prefer to do more. Relationships are so important … But it’s a choice I make.[Father]
3.1.5. “Stepping Back”
If I have kids, I might decide to step back … that could be [a role] which could be done [in] fewer days … or more flexibility in what’s needed right here, right now. I haven’t had much experience in [area enabling flexibility], so that could provide breadth that’s good for my career.[Childless woman]
It was a very deliberate choice for me when I took the new role … I’m a big believer in personal development and learning, and I was doing quite well [in my previous role] … I thought, I’d love to challenge myself and learn some new skills.[Father]
3.1.6. Using leave
My manager and colleagues … encouraged me to take as much time off as I needed. They supported my workload and constantly checked in.[Childless woman]
[Husband] is in a role that he’s really enjoying and really wants to well in it … [But his] workplace doesn’t have that infrastructure or that culture … So, I’m the one who covers sickness, childcare, works flexibly. Whereas he does full-time, in the office, nine ‘til five … Given the workplace arrangement, it’s holding me back from looking for a role outside the business.[Mother]
When I need to take carer’s leave to look after my children ‘cause I can’t get childcare, [manager’s] response is, ‘Absolutely, family first’.[Mother]
I had a breakdown … I was overwhelmed with the pressure. I confided in my manager, who gave me time off. However, it should never have come to that.[Mother]
I purchased a month of annual leave and managed school holidays that way, so that was a real positive.[Single mother]
3.2. “Choices” Accommodating Work and Life
3.2.1. Regularly Working Flexible Hours
There’s no leeway [with young children]. If you pick them up at five, you can’t be there at five-thirty. Whereas if I come earlier or later, it doesn’t matter.[Mother]
I get in to work at nine-thirty because I’m not a morning person … ‘til six-thirty, sometimes later … I try not to do anything in the evening because work is just necessary … Phone calls ‘til late … Back-to-back-to-back all day and night.[Childless woman]
I feel like people think I’m not dedicated and not prioritising work … I feel terrible, but I remind myself, ‘You were here at seven-thirty.’ And I’ll say, ‘I’ll be back online after dinner’.[Mother]
Because the meeting ran over, she goes, ‘I’ve got to pick up the children.’ I was thinking, ‘There’s a deadline. You’re breaking it because you’re female and you’re picking up the kids.’ … Over time I’ve thought, it could’ve been the guys who had to pick up the kids. Or maybe he didn’t have to because his partner was doing the heavy lifting … Why don’t we have better facilities so women can put as much effort into things as they want to or ought to? Not that you want women to have to stay crazy hours, but work should be set up so it’s possible to do what needs to be done.[Childless woman]
It’s a good policy … I don’t think day-to-day expectations and ways of working have fully embraced it. If there was something urgent at 4.30, I don’t think anyone would say, ‘Is that manageable for that person who needs to take care of children?’[Mother]
I’d been in the role longer and had a good performance rating … I had the confidence to say, “My diary is blocked out from 4 o’clock … I won’t do it”.[Mother]
I’d be uncomfortable to ask to leave earlier every day. I don’t think they could say no, but I don’t think it would help career prospects.[Father]
3.2.2. Regularly Working “Flexibly” before or after Work
I get in by eight so I can leave at five … They’re quite flexible on that front. I’ve never felt bad leaving at five.[Father]
[I arrive] between eight and nine and leave between five and six, depending on what’s on that day and what I’m doing that night … I do have that flexibility.[Childless woman]
It’s an easy reason why I leave at five, rather than having to justify it.[Father]
3.2.3. Working through Lunch
I’m working and eating at my desk at lunchtime … It’s probably just trying to fit too much into a day.[Childless man]
3.2.4. “Normal” Flexibility: Regularly Working Remotely
I get so much work done. I get on top of things. That de-stresses me.[Father]
If I’m not working at [usual site], I’ll go to [other site] because it’s … [closer to] home. I love that ‘cause I have a bit more time for the kids in the evening … definitely on my [childcare] pickup days.[Father]
I [start] by seven, seven-thirty … [finish] five-thirty, six. Spend some time with the kids, have dinner, have a shower, put them to bed, then I usually pick the laptop back up and put another two to three hours in … After the kids go to bed if I’m being a really good mum. Sometimes when they’re awake, ‘cause there are deadlines … The balance is never right … It’s always too much work or I’m running around with the kids … I’m guilty on both sides. … It’s definitely always a balancing act that I don’t know I ever get perfect.[Mother]
I wanted to move further away from the office to be closer to my parents [so they could give] the wife and kids extra help through the week. ComCo accommodated by allowing me to work remotely one to two days per week.[Father]
I always work one day from home, so I can be there when they come home from school … In terms of how my manager supports me, it’s fantastic … [Manager] sees how much I work … that I’m self-motivated.[Mother]
I spoke to the hiring manager and raised concerns around travel and how that would have to adapt … My hesitation is that for at least three days a week, I would need to be in the office, and would have to adapt before-school care … but that they’re supportive of, whether I start at ten and finish later … that’s good. But it’s still a concern that I’d have to make it work.[Single mother]
If someone like me wants flexibility, ‘He just wants to get drunk and sleep in. You don’t have kids. What do you need to be flexible for?’ They don’t realise it’s a mental health aspect as well … There’s a stigma associated with young men if they want to take advantage of flexibility.[Childless man]
My girlfriend isn’t working. She’s going stir crazy … So, it’s a day a week from home.[Childless man]
I don’t [work remotely] every week or fortnight … Is that because of the way it’s gonna be perceived, or because to get my job done it’s easier to be in the office? It’s probably both.[Childless woman]
3.2.5. Ad Hoc Working Hours Flexibility
If I’m feeling stressed, I just can’t go out today, I can make it a stay-at-home day … That [flexibility] keeps me sane.[Mother]
Dictated by meetings … I can leave at 4:30 to [get to team sport].[Childless woman]
I don’t feel bad if I need to leave early. I don’t think anyone’d frown on it once they know you work hard and do a good job … There’s so much work you do after hours. You’re always available and logging on. Overall, you probably lose.[Father]
[Former manager] knew that my child had special needs and that there was a lot of stress involved in their care. Sadly, the same type of support would not be offered [by current managers]. The majority don’t even know or have not been interested enough to realise the high stress involved in having a special needs child … [ComCo] in general is good [with flexibility] but not so much if your children have special needs and you have a limited outside work support system.[Mother]
Sometimes when you don’t have kids you feel a bit unsure about asking for flexibility, [like] leaving early for [appointments], working from home … I haven’t personally felt this as I’ve always been lucky to have a great manager who has trusted me and I feel I’ve earned the right to ask for flexibility when I need it.[Childless woman]
I couldn’t care less what one person does because I know she delivers … She doesn’t even need to tell me because I trust her.[Mother]
3.2.6. Flexibility Compromises
The high workload, performance and growth expectations conflict with messages about working flexibly … How do I get a better result by pulling back a day a week?[Mother]
[Colleague is] horrified I’m a working mother and constantly challenges me … He said, ‘I don’t know how you sleep at night.’ … Explaining myself, ‘I love my children, I’m sure you love your children even though you’re not there.’ I’ve got that constant guilt anyway, so when they question you, you think, ‘Am I a terrible mum?’[Mother]
When [child] went through these issues, I thought, ‘Is it okay to work full-time, or should I be home and should that be my job?’ Of course you feel guilt at times.[Mother]
Sometimes I think, ‘Are others seeing me as selfish by focusing on my career? Is that what I should be doing?’ But I juggle that with, I just want the best for my children … I want them to not be bound by finances and have plentiful opportunities.[Mother]
We take them to before school care … they go to after school care … We don’t see their teacher … I feel, we feel, guilty.[Father]
Ideal world, we’d both spend less time at work … but it means more to [wife] in her feelings as a mother. We couldn’t both [work part-time]. We couldn’t afford to.[Father]
Many people assume I [have children]. Then they realise I don’t … I don’t see their behaviour changing. I just see that question mark above their heads, ‘What does it mean for somebody not to have kids? What box do I put her in?’[Childless woman]
3.2.7. Dedicated Times for Life
I got to the point where I said, ‘I’m not going to work on weekends if possible.’ But you were saving up trouble come Monday. I wished I could [work weekends], but if I did, I’d get back to being tired, stressed.[Childless woman]
I prioritise family and work … social is a fun thing I should have time for only if the other things are under control. And I don’t feel like they’re ever under control.[Mother]
I walk from [station] to work, 15 to, 20 min. Although it’s not the type of exercise I like to do, it’s something. You make choices. You can’t fit everything in.[Father]
I’m up at 7:30 so I’ve got half an hour to myself before I get [child] up … [Child’s] asleep by 9 o’clock … Nine to 11, getting stuff ready for the next day. Sometimes exercise in front of the television or watching television while I’m doing something else.[Single mother]
I’m at the gym once a day. A non-negotiable. And I feel really good doing it.[Childless man]
I still see lots of people. It’s just when you work full-time, you can’t see people during the week.[Mother]
Three or four people left roles [because manager] was unreasonable, calling them on weekends.[Mother]
3.2.8. Communicating Availability Boundaries
If I have early [commitment] … I’ll block out my diary.[Childless woman]
I’ve outlined why I want to leave at five … and don’t put meetings afterwards or there needs to be a reason.[Father]
I said to my manager, ‘I know we need to have evening calls. Can we do it on days I’ve got help or after the children are in bed?’ … There could be business challenges that prevent you from having those requests met, but he’s been quite supportive.[Mother]
I said to my manager a number of times, “I like no meetings six to 7:30, because that’s when I have dinner.” And he would routinely put something in.[Childless woman]
3.2.9. “Planning” and “Organising” Work and Life
I’m not a big planner. This is when [full-time working partner’s] good. We’ve got a … [shared] calendar on our phones, which helps because things change quickly with meetings and where I’m gonna be.[Father]
When I’m organised, I’m less stressed … You know what’s going to happen, when it’s going to happen, how it’s going to happen.[Mother]
My husband, he’s definitely not a decision-maker. He’ll avoid it at all costs … I’m the decision-maker in our relationship.[Mother]
3.3. “Choices” Acquiescing to Work–life Conflict
3.3.1. Compromising Business-Hours Life to Meet Job Demands
Say I came down with gastro … the guidance would come down from [manager] to rest. But I don’t think I’ve ever claimed a sick day … I’m at home working.[Childless man]
[Partner’s] very busy and doesn’t have as much flexibility as me in terms of where to work.[Father]
I started to get a bit antsy and [partner] said, ‘Just go back to work’.[Mother]
[Child’s] been ill, I’ve worked from home four days in a row, then I’ve got sick … A couple of times my manager asked, ‘Are you coming into the office?’ I’m sure it’s not meant badly … but I was new to the manager and trying to prove I wasn’t lazy.[Mother]
ComCo has cut to fewer people, so you might not have another person on your team … to cover for you during holidays.[Childless woman]
It is clearly communicated the business can offer flexibility, but there is no way to implement this in some roles without losing productivity or sales.[Mother]
3.3.2. “Going All In” and “Compromising” Outside-Hours Life
When I was pregnant, I had terrible morning sickness … doing twenty hours a day, going home for a few hours’ sleep, coming back and doing it all over again.[Mother]
During tough periods … I cut my enjoyment first. Exercise is the first to go … then time to myself, time with my friends … I hold on to family time as much as I can.[Father]
3.3.3. Using “Troughs” for Life
My boss has a good sense of knowing I’m stretched and making sure I have time to recharge … [They’re] good at doing that themselves as well.[Childless man]
I do have to do a lot of self-talk during those down periods to say, ‘Okay, it’s not the most intellectually stimulating right now, but it gives me the ability to focus on myself, to get some exercise in, and be present with my family … ‘Cause those intense periods, while they’re challenging and you feel a huge sense of professional achievement, you compromise all other aspects of your life to be able to achieve that.[Mother]
[Manager] said, ‘You can’t always be working on big, exciting stuff and having balance in your life.’ … Why can’t I have challenging work, the right volume, enjoy personal time and balance family time as well?[Mother]
3.3.4. Relying on “Really Good Support Networks”
You need that support. I don’t know how you’d do the role otherwise … as long as you’ve got really good support network.[Mother]
If I can’t be there to do these things and he can, then that’s how we manage it.[Childless woman]
It’d be difficult to take [carer’s leave] regularly … [Part-time working] wife’s taken more.[Father]
[Colleague has] a babysitter every night, so she can stay in the office until 7 o’clock.[Mother]
I have weeks where I struggle to be there for my family. But the kids are older, so it’s not really an issue.[Mother]
4. Discussion and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Interviewees (n = 10) | Questionnaire Respondents (n = 47) | Total 1 (n = 51) | |
---|---|---|---|
Sex and parent status | |||
Fathers | 2 | 17 | 19 |
Mothers | 4 | 14 | 14 |
Childless women | 2 | 13 | 13 |
Childless men | 2 | 3 | 5 |
Age (years) | |||
25 to 34 | 4 | 5 | 7 |
35 to 44 | 5 | 17 | 19 |
45 or above | 1 | 24 | 24 |
Education level | |||
Bachelor or above | 8 | 35 | 39 |
Certificate or diploma | 6 | 6 | |
Year 12 or below | 6 | 6 | |
Country of birth | |||
Australia | 6 | 30 | 32 |
Overseas | 4 | 17 | 19 |
Language spoken at home | |||
English | 8 | 38 | 42 |
Other | 8 | 8 | |
Management level | |||
Managers | 7 | 30 | 32 |
Non-managers | 3 | 16 | 18 |
Current working hours | |||
Full-time | 10 | 44 | 48 |
Part-time | 0 | 3 | 3 |
Main worksite | |||
Head office | 8 2 | 28 | 32 |
Factory | 1 | 13 | 13 |
Field or state office | 1 | 5 | 5 |
Department | |||
Commercial | 3 | 12 | 14 |
Support | 5 | 15 | 17 |
Operations | 2 | 18 | 18 |
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Turnbull, B.; Taket, A.; Graham, M. Multilevel Continua of Mothers, Fathers and Childless Women and Men’s Work–Life “Choices” and Their Constraints, Enablers and Consequences. Soc. Sci. 2023, 12, 181. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12030181
Turnbull B, Taket A, Graham M. Multilevel Continua of Mothers, Fathers and Childless Women and Men’s Work–Life “Choices” and Their Constraints, Enablers and Consequences. Social Sciences. 2023; 12(3):181. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12030181
Chicago/Turabian StyleTurnbull, Beth, Ann Taket, and Melissa Graham. 2023. "Multilevel Continua of Mothers, Fathers and Childless Women and Men’s Work–Life “Choices” and Their Constraints, Enablers and Consequences" Social Sciences 12, no. 3: 181. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12030181