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Article

Predicting the Sustainability-Oriented Entrepreneurship Intentions of Business School Students: The Role of Individualistic Values

by
Takawira Munyaradzi Ndofirepi
Business Support Studies, Central University of Technology, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa
Soc. Sci. 2023, 12(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12010013
Submission received: 1 November 2022 / Revised: 20 December 2022 / Accepted: 21 December 2022 / Published: 26 December 2022
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Abstract

:
This study sought to determine whether Ajzen’s theory of planned behaviour could be used to predict the intention of selected Zimbabwean business school students towards sustainable entrepreneurship. The study also examined whether the relationships between the predictor variables of the theory of planned behaviour and sustainable entrepreneurial intention were moderated by the respondents’ individualistic value orientations. A positivist worldview and a quantitative cross-sectional survey were used to collect data from 210 business school students who had completed postgraduate entrepreneurship courses at two public universities in the western region of Zimbabwe. The predictors of the hypothetical model explained 49 percent of the variance in respondents’ intentions to pursue sustainable entrepreneurship. Only the attitude toward the behaviour variable had a statistically significant direct impact on sustainable entrepreneurial intention. Subjective norms had an indirect effect on sustainable entrepreneurial intention, which was entirely mediated by attitude toward behaviour. Individualistic values had no statistically significant moderating effect on the relationships between the predictors of intention and the intention to engage in sustainable entrepreneurship. The study’s findings have implications for business schools’ efforts to contribute to the goal of sustainable development. The study contributes to the development of the literature by evaluating the relevance of the theory of planned behaviour to sustainable entrepreneurship.

1. Introduction

The extensive support programmes for entrepreneurship worldwide testify to its crucial role in the social and economic development of today’s society (Atiase et al. 2018; Medeiros et al. 2020). While entrepreneurial growth offers consumers a wide range of product options, the industrialisation that creates these products has been accompanied by alarming levels of environmental degradation (including pollution, land degradation, natural resource depletion, climate change, and global warming (Halkos and Polemis 2017; Gulistan et al. 2020), generating increased concern. Approximately 75 per cent of the world’s land is deteriorated, caused mainly by unsustainable human choices and endangering the survival of over three billion people (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services 2019). For poorer nations, environmental restoration is cost prohibitive. For instance, the annual cost of environmental degradation to Zimbabwean society in 2017 was estimated at USD 382 million, around 6 per cent of the country’s gross domestic product at the time (United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification 2017). It is suggested that preventive measures are one of the most cost-effective ways to avert the global catastrophe (Basu et al. 2019), hence the call for businesses to pursue a balance of environmental, economic, and social value creation (also known as sustainable entrepreneurship) in accordance with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Higher education institutions contribute to the sustainability action plan by implementing eco-friendly practices and preparing future generations by creating indispensable opportunities to study the latest advancements and developmental requirements for sustainable communities (Habib et al. 2021). In many industrialised nations, higher education institutions offering entrepreneurship training and education are reorienting their educational curricula to inspire their students and graduates to pursue sustainable business following the SDGs (Lourenço et al. 2012). In Germany, for example, state-owned universities have increasingly taken a leading position in regional and economic sustainability in recent years through university-related funding programmes for sustainable management in addition to teaching and research activities (Wagner et al. 2021). Even with this paradigm shift in place, there are worries about university departments’ ability to produce alumni who are sustainability-conscious, given their individualist “profit first” culture (Slater and Dixon-Fowler 2010; Giacalone and Thompson 2006). The prioritization of profits seems to threaten the institutional acceptance of sustainability as a key objective. This is because the implementation of sustainability actions increases the likelihood of declining revenue, a key measure of success for business entities.
Despite a growing body of literature on the role of higher education in sustainable development, research on the relationship between the values instilled in students by for-profit institutions such as business schools and their intent to initiate sustainability initiatives is limited. Even though values and behavioural intentions have a long history in social psychology, it is only recently that they have been examined together in entrepreneurial research (Fayolle et al. 2014; Kruse et al. 2019; Liñán et al. 2016; Hueso et al. 2021), such that low-income countries such as Zimbabwe are under-represented in the literature. As previously indicated, developing countries are overburdened by the concomitant costs of environmental deterioration.
Several studies have examined the different mechanisms through which values are associated with entrepreneurial intentions, including those oriented toward sustainability (Azanza et al. 2007; Gorgievski et al. 2018; Mcdonald 2014; Rantanen and Toikko 2017). However, Hueso et al. (2021) argue that additional research is necessary before a complete understanding of the relationship can be attained. The uncertainty in the literature on the collective influence of human values and predictors of the theory of planned behaviour on sustainability-related entrepreneurial intentions is thus the research gap. Previous research on the collective influence of values and predictors of intentions in the theory has primarily focused on general entrepreneurial intentions. Fayolle et al. (2014) recommend that researchers investigate intention in a variety of entrepreneurial scenarios (e.g., corporate, sustainability, social, or technology-related) in order to rejuvenate and broaden the scope of entrepreneurship intentions research. Because of this, the current study applies Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned behaviour to develop a model for determining the predictors of sustainability-oriented entrepreneurship intentions among selected Zimbabwean business school students. Individualistic values, it is postulated, moderate the influence of attitude toward behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control on sustainable entrepreneurship intentions. As a result, the overarching research question is as follows:
Do individualistic values exert a moderating effect on how attitudes toward behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control affect students’ intention to engage in sustainable entrepreneurship?
It is useful to explore the parameters mentioned in the research question and their links for different reasons. To begin with, the findings contribute to a better understanding of the dynamics behind the genesis of complex planned behaviours such as sustainable entrepreneurship. Secondly, individualistic values, which are characterised as a cultural dimension consisting of “a preference for a loosely-knit social framework in which individuals are expected to look after only themselves and their immediate circle” (Rantanen and Toikko 2017, p. 292), are an integral part of personal goal setting (Bardi and Schwartz 2003) and serve as action guides in difficult situations such as deciding whether to adopt sustainable business practices (Gorgievski et al. 2018). Business school students are appropriate targets for the study because many of them oversee or even own businesses and may eventually launch new ventures with ecological implications. Likewise, they are socialised to the individualistic business school philosophy of ‘profit-first’ and thus serve as ideal data sources for the study. Finally, knowing the relationship between students’ values and intentions for sustainable entrepreneurship potentially affects sustainable entrepreneurship and development policy.
The next section provides an overview of the existing literature on the variables under consideration. Afterwards, an explanation of the methodological approaches and procedures used in the study’s execution follows. The section on the study’s findings is then presented. Finally, a discussion of the findings is offered, along with its implications and limitations, as well as suggested study areas.

2. Theoretical Framework

2.1. Theory of Planned Behaviour

Given that sustainable entrepreneurship is the outcome of a person’s rational evaluation of various behavioural possibilities, Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned behaviour offers a workable framework for comprehending the factors driving such entrepreneurial behaviour and is widely used in entrepreneurship intentions research (Maheshwari et al. 2022). The model suggests that volitional acts are a result of personal cognitive processes in which behaviour is determined by three important factors: attitude toward behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control. The intention construct, a state of mind that indicates a commitment to carry out a specific action, mediates the effects of the three determinants. Entrepreneurship intention is defined as “a person’s self-admitted view that they intend to launch a new endeavour and have a conscious purpose to do so at some future point” (Thompson 2009, p. 676). This point in the future could be near or far in time or even never happen. Seminal works in entrepreneurship posit that intention is crucial for the development of entrepreneurial activity (Bird 1988; Krueger 2000; Krueger and Brazeal 1994). Intentions are significant because they reveal how hard individuals are willing to work to accomplish an activity (Bird 1988).
Although there are several other theories on entrepreneurial intentions, some of which are compatible and could be applied to the current study, the theory of planned behaviour is more appropriate for this study due to its comparatively wider application, superior versatility, simplicity, and consistent robustness in explaining predetermined behaviour (Tornikoski and Maalaoui 2019). Besides emphasising the mediated effects of attitude toward behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control on behavioural intentions, the theory affirms the possible effects of other exogenous factors on the original model’s key constructs and the interrelations between them. In this research, the individualistic values construct is integrated into the theory of planned behaviour. Nonetheless, the theory of planned behaviour has its limits. One common shortcoming is that it assumes all human behaviour is rational, which minimises the role of irrationality (for example, emotion) in certain choices that people make, including pursuing sustainable business practices.

2.2. Literature Review and Hypotheses Development

This section details the literature used to frame the study. It also presents the conceptual model emanating from the proposed relationships between variables.

2.2.1. Attitude towards Behaviour and Sustainable Entrepreneurship Intention

The term attitude towards behaviour relates to the degree to which an individual views a certain behaviour favourably or negatively, with an obvious bias in one way (Ajzen 1991). It explains the personal attraction of the goal behaviours, in this study becoming a sustainable entrepreneur. It is analogous to Shapero and Sokol’s (1982) concept of perceived desirability. Individuals establish attitudes about certain behaviours depending on their beliefs about the outcome of the behaviour. People who have a favourable attitude about behaviour are more likely to attempt it, and vice-versa. Several studies show that attitude toward a behaviour is the first and most powerful predictor of behavioural intentions in the theory of planned behaviour model (Doanh and Bernat 2019; Liñán et al. 2011a; Malebana and Swanepoel 2015; Rueda Barrios et al. 2022; Vuorio et al. 2018; Majid et al. 2017; Waris et al. 2021; Vuorio et al. 2018). Moreover, there is documented evidence that a person’s attitude toward the environment influences their behaviour towards the environment and the adoption of sustainable practices (Chekima et al. 2016; Gatersleben et al. 2014). Since the predictive capacity of the theory of planned behaviour model’s determinants varies depending on the context, one area of interest is whether the previously observed positive association between attitude and behavioural intentions persists in the case of sustainable entrepreneurial intentions. As a result, the following hypothesis is advanced:
Hypothesis 1 (H1).
Attitudes towards behaviour are positively related to sustainable entrepreneurship intention.

2.2.2. Subjective Norms and Sustainable Entrepreneurship Intention

Subjective norms are defined as “the views of social reference groups such as family and friends on whether the individual should engage in the behaviour” (Kautonen et al. 2015). The concept alludes to an individual’s receptiveness to the ideas of those who are socially associated with them when deciding on a course of action. In other words, it represents an individual’s perception of the chance that specific behaviours would be endorsed or condemned by others in their social circle. The empirical findings on the association between subjective norms and entrepreneurial intentions are contradictory. While some studies reveal a positive association (Feola et al. 2019; Karimi et al. 2015; Kautonen et al. 2015; Rueda Barrios et al. 2022), others have found the subjective norms variable to be the weakest predictor of entrepreneurial intentions, and in some cases to have no impact at all (García-Rodríguez et al. 2015; Marques et al. 2012; Majid et al. 2017; Waris et al. 2021). Nonetheless, there is still a need to investigate the impact of subjective norms on entrepreneurship intentions. To begin with, the fact that entrepreneurship is socially embedded (Jack and Anderson 2002) implies that entrepreneurs ordinarily conduct following what is socially accepted and expected, particularly in collectivistic cultural settings and less so in individualistic cultural situations (Vershinina et al. 2018). Moreover, Ajzen (1991) highlighted that the predictive effects of attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural varied depending on the situation and should, thus, be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. This study thus tackles the less investigated context in the literature of sustainable entrepreneurship intentions. Although the theory of planned behaviour suggests a direct relationship between subjective norms and entrepreneurship intentions, the research recognises a possible indirect relationship through the attitude towards entrepreneurship and perceived behavioural control variables as highlighted by several scholars (Marques et al. 2012; García-Rodríguez et al. 2015; Linan 2008; Liñán et al. 2011b; Boubker et al. 2022). The following hypotheses are thus suggested:
Hypothesis 2 (H2).
Subjective norms are positively related to sustainable entrepreneurship intention.
Hypothesis 3 (H3).
Subjective norms are indirectly related to sustainable entrepreneurship intention through attitude towards behaviour.
Hypothesis 4 (H4).
Subjective norms are indirectly related to sustainable entrepreneurship intention through perceived behavioural control.

2.2.3. Perceived Behavioural Control and Sustainable Entrepreneurship Intention

Liñán et al. (2011b) explain perceived behavioural control as the sense of ease or difficulty of carrying out the desired behaviour. Perceived behavioural control is based on a person’s understanding of the availability of resources and the chance to engage in a behaviour (Ajzen 1991). The concept is theoretically tied to and used interchangeably with Bandura’s (1982) ‘self-efficacy’ and Shapero and Sokol’s (1982) ‘perceived feasibility’ notions. However, Ajzen (2002) claimed that perceived behavioural control is a much wider concept than self-efficacy since it encompasses both self-efficacy and the perceived manageability of an action. Generally, a greater sense of control boosts one’s desire to engage in entrepreneurial behaviour, whereas a diminished sense has the opposite impact. Previous research has shown that perceived behavioural control is a reliable predictor of an individual’s likelihood of completing tough tasks, such as pursuing entrepreneurship (García-Rodríguez et al. 2015; Haus et al. 2013; Karimi et al. 2015; Malebana and Swanepoel 2015; Majid et al. 2017; Waris et al. 2021; Joensuu-Salo et al. 2022), even though Marques et al. (2012) found it to be a non-significant predictor. Given the complexity of pursuing sustainability-related business objectives and the requirement for participants’ self-belief, the following hypothesis is derived:
Hypothesis 5 (H5).
Perceived behavioural control is positively related to sustainable entrepreneurship intention.

2.2.4. The Moderation Effect of Individualistic Values

Values are defined by Schwartz (1992, p. 21) as “a positive trans-situational goal varying in importance, which serves as a guiding principle in the life of a person or other social entity.” Values are desirable ideals and inspire behaviour towards them (Schwartz 2010). Vital properties of values are that they are inextricably related to the formation of attitudes and operate as action guides. Therefore, they are necessary to understand human conduct. Several studies have shown strong links between personal values and general entrepreneurial intentions (Fayolle et al. 2014; Liñán et al. 2016; Hueso et al. 2021), entrepreneurial career intention (Gorgievski et al. 2018), and social entrepreneurial intention (Kruse et al. 2019). In particular, individualistic values have been linked to stronger entrepreneurial profiles (León et al. 2007; Samydevan et al. 2021). This close interlinkage could be explained by the fact that entrepreneurship is usually driven by personal ambition, and therefore, people who prioritise personal needs and espouse self-reliance are more likely to pursue and thrive in entrepreneurship (Zeffane 2014).
Higher entrepreneurial activity is observed in regions with highly individualistic cultures (Liñán et al. 2016). What remains unclear, however, is whether individualistic values operate independently of other factors when predicting entrepreneurial intention and activity. The current research seeks to contribute to tackling the preceding challenge by responding to Liñán and Fayolle’s (2015) clarion call for additional studies that incorporate new variables and sophisticated alternative combinations of motivational antecedents to intentions in different entrepreneurial contexts. Individualistic values, it is postulated, moderate the impact of attitude towards behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control on sustainable entrepreneurship intentions. As a result, the following hypotheses are proposed:
Hypothesis 6 (H6).
Individualistic values moderate the influence of attitude towards behaviour on sustainable entrepreneurship intention.
Hypothesis 7 (H7).
Individualistic values moderate the influence of subjective norms on sustainable entrepreneurship intention.
Hypothesis 8 (H8).
Individualistic values moderate the influence of perceived behavioural control on sustainable entrepreneurship intention.

2.2.5. Control Variables

The formation of entrepreneurial intentions is complicated and impacted by a variety of factors, many of which are not reflected in the hypothesised model used in this study. However, demographic characteristics are shown in the statistical tests as control factors to minimise omitted variable bias and to restrict alternative interpretations. The importance of contextual or demographic variables in determining entrepreneurial intention is acknowledged by existing literature (Liñán and Chen 2009). Age, gender, marital status, race, family antecedents, educational levels, and prior work and entrepreneurship exposure have all been related to the development of entrepreneurship in the past (Chaudhary 2017; Hatak et al. 2015; Kautonen 2008; Marques et al. 2012; Pruett et al. 2009). Nonetheless, many studies ignore these variables when examining the determinants of entrepreneurial intentions because of their overall weak predictive effects; some scholars tend to ignore demographic variables. In this study, however, we use selected demographic variables (age, gender, marital status, family business background, and previous entrepreneurship exposure) as control variables. Figure 1 depicts the various hypothesised relationships.

3. Research Methodology

3.1. Target Population and Data Collection

The study used a positivistic worldview and a quantitative cross-sectional survey design to collect data from Master of Business Administration and Master of Business Leadership degree students from two universities in western Zimbabwe’s business schools. A positivistic worldview assumes that only factual data obtained through scientific observation can be relied upon in research. A cross-sectional survey research design entails collecting data from a population or sample of respondents using a research instrument at a single point in time. The preceding approach was chosen because of its amenability to testing cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
By focusing on postgraduate business school students, the researcher was able to assess the predispositions of prospective sustainable entrepreneurs in line with the study’s focus. Furthermore, having gained entrepreneurship-related competencies in business school, the students were confident in their entrepreneurial abilities and were more likely to consider a career as an entrepreneur.
A survey of a convenience sample of 318 students who had been exposed to entrepreneurship-related courses at the two institutions was conducted electronically using Google forms. With the approval and co-operation of the programme co-ordinators at the participating institution, the researcher managed to access the email addresses of the students to which links to the survey and invitations to participate were sent. The data collection process took place between March and July 2020. However, student participation was voluntary. Respondents were thus recruited via email and based on their willingness to participate in the survey. A total of 210 completed questionnaires were returned to the researcher. The profile of the respondents is presented in Table 1. According to the profile, most of the respondents were female, between the ages of 31 and 40, married, had some entrepreneurial experience through family businesses, and had previously attempted to start a business.

3.2. Measures

Data on sustainable entrepreneurship intention, attitude toward sustainable entrepreneurship, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control were collected using five-point Likert-type scales adapted from Liñán and Chen (2009). The items used to measure individualistic values were adapted from Farrukh et al. (2019). However, the items “Winning is everything” and “When another person does better than I do, I get tense and aroused” were dropped from the original seven-item instrument because they correlated poorly with the other items used to measure the construct. The questionnaire (see Appendix A) was not pilot tested since it was based on pre-validated scales.

3.3. Data Analysis and Quality Checks

3.3.1. Common Method Variance

Because of common method bias, survey-based studies are prone to measurement errors (Podsakoff et al. 2003). The strength of associations between constructs is exaggerated in such studies. In this study, Harman’s one-factor method was used as a precaution to test for evidence of common method variance. Using exploratory factor analysis, the 23 indicator variables measuring entrepreneurial intentions, attitude toward sustainable entrepreneurship, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control were reduced to a single factor. The single-factor model explained 17.30% of the data variance. This variation was less than 50%, indicating that there was no evidence of common method variance. The findings are summarised in Table 2.

3.3.2. Control Factors

A linear regression analysis was conducted to assess whether the “gender”, “age”, “marital status”, “exposure to the family business”, and “tried to start a business before” variables significantly predicted sustainable entrepreneurship intention. The results of the linear regression model were not significant, F(7,97) = 0.65, p = 0.718, R2 = 0.04, signifying that the predictors did not explain a significant proportion of variation in sustainable entrepreneurship intention. Because both the overall model and regression coefficients for the individual demographic were not statistically significant, the individual predictors were not included in further analyses. The regression model’s findings are summarised in Table 3.

4. Findings

Partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) was used to test the study hypotheses. Smart PLS version 3.3.3 computer software was used for this purpose. PLS-SEM is a variance-based non-parametric structural equation modelling technique used to test cause-and-effect relationships between scale variables. It is a robust alternative to traditional covariance-based structural equation modelling. PLS-SEM was used as a data analysis method because, unlike covariance-based SEM, it does not make any specific assumptions about the dataset’s characteristics. As a result, the technique was deemed appropriate for the current study, which was based on non-probability sampling data, the characteristics of which could not have been normally distributed, as required for covariance-based analysis. The process of data analysis in PLS-SEM consists of two steps: (1) evaluation of the measurement (outer) model and (2) assessment of the structural (internal model) model.

4.1. Assessment of the Reflective Measurement Model

The measurement model serves to evaluate the reliability and validity of construct indicator items. The following issues are examined: internal consistency or reliability, construct validity, and discriminant validity. Firstly, internal consistency is measured using the Cronbach alpha index. Cronbach alpha indices range from 0 to 1, and a value of at least 0.7 for a particular construct indicates an acceptable level of internal consistency. All the five latent variables examined in the study had acceptable levels of reliability (internal consistency)—see Table 4. Additionally, the composite reliability values for each construct were at least 0.7, demonstrating satisfactory reliability of construct indicators. Secondly, construct validity is ascertained using the average value extracted (AVE), where a value of at least 0.5 suggests satisfactory construct validity. Based on the two criteria, all variables had adequate construct validity levels (See Table 4).
Lastly, discriminant validity was ascertained using the Fornell–Larcker and heterotrait–monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT) criteria. In the Fornell–Larcker technique, discriminant validity exists between variables when the square root of the average variance extracted for each variable is greater than the correlations between them. The bold diagonal values in Table 5 are the square roots of the extracted average variance, while the figures below them show the correlations between the variables. In the case of the HTMT, discriminant validity exists between variables when the HTMT coefficients are less than 0.90. The information presented in Table 5 and Table 6 thus confirms the existence of discriminant validity.

4.2. Assessment of the Structural Model

This subsection provides the results of the structural model test. The links between exogenous and endogenous variables are represented by a structural model. The structural model’s robustness was evaluated using R2 (coefficient of determination), Stone–Geisser’s Q2, f-square effect size, and path coefficients. The R2 statistic shows the extent of the predictor(s) effect on the outcome variables, whereas path coefficients indicate the direction, strength, and significance of between-variable interactions. The variable of sustainable entrepreneurial intention yielded a coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.49 (see Figure 2), indicating that the exogenous factors had moderate strength predictive potential (Chin 1998). R2 values of 0.102 and 0.038 for the attitude toward sustainable entrepreneurship and perceived behavioural control variables, respectively, indicate weak predictive power.
In addition to the R2, Stone–Geisser’s Q2 value was calculated using the blindfolding approach (cross-validated redundancy methodology) to assess the predictive effectiveness of the structural model. Exogenous variables with Q2 values at least 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35, respectively, have weak, moderate, and strong predictive relevance to endogenous variables (Thompson 2009). Q2 values of 0.37, 0.062, and 0.013 were reported for sustainable entrepreneurship intention, attitude toward behaviour, and perceived behavioural control, respectively.
Aside from the foregoing, the f-square effect size values were calculated. These values represent the change in R-Square when a particular predictor is excluded from a regression model. According to Cohen (1988), effect sizes are interpreted as follows: (≥0.02 is small; ≥0.15 is medium; ≥0.35 is large. Table 7 presents a summary of the f-square values for the hypothesised relationships. From Table 7, the effect size of the relationship between attitude towards behaviour and sustainable entrepreneurship intention was large. The effect size of the relationship between subjective norms and attitude towards behaviour and subjective norms and perceived behavioural control were small (0.106 and 0.040, respectively).
To establish the statistical significance of each hypothesised relationship path, a conventional bootstrapping approach with 500 resamples consisting of the same amount of cases as in the original sample is used. The results in Table 8 show that H1 is supported, meaning attitude towards behaviour had a significant positive relationship with sustainable entrepreneurship intention (beta = 0.579, p < 0.000). Whereas the indirect effects of subjective norms on sustainable entrepreneurship intention were statistically significant (beta = 0.180, p < 0.000), the direct effects were not (beta = 0.093, p < 0.135). Therefore, H2 is not supported. H3 is supported, inferring that the effect of subjective norms on sustainable entrepreneurship intention is fully mediated by attitude towards behaviour. All other hypotheses were not supported.

5. Discussion

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether individualistic values affected the linkages between sustainable entrepreneurship intention and its three predictors according to the theory of planned behaviour. Equally, it sought to establish whether the assumptions of the Ajzen’s (1991) model could be used to predict the sustainable entrepreneurship intention of selected business school students in a developing country.
Firstly, the most prominent outcome from this study is that attitude toward behaviour had a strong positive link with the intention to engage in sustainable entrepreneurship. The results are consistent with earlier research in the realms of entrepreneurship and prosocial behaviour that used the theory of planned behaviour as a reference frame (Chekima et al. 2016; Gatersleben et al. 2014) and confirmed the major role of attitudes in the creation of behavioural intention and, subsequently, behaviour. The outcome corroborates recent findings by Rueda Barrios et al. (2022) and Boubker et al. (2022), which also confirmed a positive relationship between attitude towards behaviour and sustainable entrepreneurial intentions.
Secondly, the direct association between subjective norms and sustainable entrepreneurship intention was found to be statistically non-significant in this study. However, an indirect effect of social norms on sustainable entrepreneurship intention was confirmed, which was fully mediated by attitude towards behaviour. While this relationship pattern is not in sync with the assumptions of the theory of planned behaviour, it is consistent with observations of Fenech et al. (2019), Autio et al. (2001), and Liñán et al. (2011a) that the relationship between subjective norms and behavioural intentions is at best weak and sometimes non-significant. The result supports Marques et al.’s (2012) and García-Rodríguez et al.’s (2015) hypothesis that subject norms may influence entrepreneurial ambitions as well as the other two determinants, attitude toward behaviour and perceived behavioural control.
The most unexpected observation is that the association between perceived behavioural control and sustainable entrepreneurship intentions was not statistically significant. This finding contradicts multiple research that claimed that one’s confidence in performing an activity played a substantial role in one’s intention to undertake that activity (García-Rodríguez et al. 2015; Karimi et al. 2015; Malebana and Swanepoel 2015). One possible explanation for these findings is that for the respondents, who were postgraduate business school students immersed in a profit-first environment, pursuing a commercial enterprise that went beyond the primary business goal of profits was a sentimental decision rather than one based on perceived abilities to perform. As a result, attitudes influenced their propensity to participate in sustainable practices more than perceived capabilities. This finding, however, is consistent with that of Vuorio et al. (2018), who found no link between perceived feasibility and sustainability-oriented entrepreneurial intentions, and Ayob et al. (2013), who discovered no relationship between perceived entrepreneurial feasibility and social entrepreneurial intentions.
Individualistic values have previously been shown to influence different forms of entrepreneurial intentions in students (Downes et al. 2017; Liñán et al. 2016). This appeared not to be the case in this study. The direct association between individualistic values and intention to engage in sustainable entrepreneurship was not statistically significant. Similarly, the theorised moderating effect of individualistic values on the relationship between the three antecedents of intentions specified in the theory of planned behaviour and the intention to engage in sustainable entrepreneurship was also found not to be significant. The findings contradict the suggestions by Fayolle et al. (2014) and Delanoë-Gueguen and Liñán (2019) that personal values may moderate the relationships between predictor and independent variables in the theory of planned behaviour. The observed result, however, is consistent with Verplanken and Holland’s (2002) assertion that though personal values are more enduring constructs than attitudes, they are not always invoked when individuals make decisions and actions. Thus, the respondents’ choice to pursue sustainable entrepreneurship may be opportunistic and unrelated to their value system. As with the unpredictability in the attitude–behaviour relationship, an ambiguity in the value–behaviour connection can also be inferred.

6. Conclusions

In this section, theoretical and practical applications of the study, as well as the limitations and areas for further research, are proposed.

6.1. Theoretical Implications

The paper represents a notable step forward in gaining a deeper knowledge of sustainable entrepreneurship intentions and has practical consequences in the unique environment of Zimbabwean business schools. Prior studies have highlighted the importance of higher education institutions in enhancing sustainability performance in societies (Dagiliūtė and Liobikienė 2015; Yuan et al. 2013). The study investigated a novel conceptual model that incorporated the individualistic values variable to see if assumptions of the theory of planned behaviour can be applied to the field of sustainability-oriented entrepreneurship. The study discovered statistically insignificant direct correlations between perceived behavioural control and sustainable entrepreneurship intentions, as well as subjective norms and sustainable entrepreneurial intentions. It also disconfirmed the hypothesised moderating effect of individualistic values in the numerous interactions between main constructs in the theory of planned behaviour. However, it confirmed that attitude toward a behaviour is the most powerful predictor of intention. It also lends evidence to the notion that the influence of subjective norms on sustainable entrepreneurship intention in the theory of planned behaviour is potentially mediated by other variables. Overall, the study findings illustrate the possibility of context-specific deviations in the theory of planned behaviour’s application.

6.2. Practical Implications

The results also have practical implications. They suggest that the most important determinant of sustainable entrepreneurship intention is the attitude towards behaviour. Given this, business schools should focus their efforts primarily on shifting the attitudes of their targeted audiences to nurture entrepreneurs who are more oriented toward sustainable business methods. Such efforts could take the form of sustainability-related curriculum content and activities aimed at increasing participants’ understanding of the benefits of sustainable entrepreneurship as well as their motivation and capabilities to pursue it.
Additionally, the study discovered that subjective norms had a substantial indirect effect on individuals’ choice to pursue sustainable business practices via their attitude toward behaviour. The implication is that business schools, as critical social institutions in their students’ lives, should deliberately foster an institutional environment that stimulates sustainable entrepreneurship. This is possible if business schools incorporate the concept of sustainability into their fundamental values and students believe the institutions live according to the stated principle. Business schools can have a social influence on their students by adopting a holistic approach to sustainability that encompasses teaching, research, institutional processes, physical infrastructure, community involvement, and stakeholder relationships.

6.3. Limitations and Areas for Further Research

While the findings of this study are critical to understanding sustainable entrepreneurial intentions, the research has some limitations, most notably those on the representativeness of the outcomes. While a census of all applicable respondents was attempted, participation was voluntary, and approximately 66.8% of the target population responded. Thus, the statistical representativeness of the results could have been undermined.
Furthermore, the study relied on the perspectives of respondents drawn from postgraduate students from only two business schools in Zimbabwe. As a result, the insights gathered are bound to narrow contexts and should be used with caution. In future investigations, it may be beneficial to undertake a similar study, but which targets students from all the business schools in Zimbabwe so that more representative inferences can be drawn. Another detailed study on the effects of a more comprehensive range of human values (not individualism only) on sustainability-oriented entrepreneurship is also proposed for future investigation.
The survey was cross-sectional in design, gathering opinions from students only when they had completed a postgraduate course in entrepreneurship. Future research should strengthen the credibility of the findings by using a longitudinal strategy in which there are pre-tests and post-tests of student opinions when they enrol and when they graduate from the entrepreneurship course.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Institutional Review Board Statement

No ethical approval was requested from any institutional body. As a result, the individual researcher is personally liable for any allegations made against this research.

Informed Consent Statement

All respondents provided verbal informed consent, and their participation was entirely voluntary.

Data Availability Statement

Data are available in a reasonable time on request for the data from the researcher.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank all the respondents and research assistants who took part in the data-gathering process.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares that he has no known competing financial interest or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Appendix A. Sustainable Entrepreneurship Intention Questionnaire

Instructions to respondents:
  • Please be as honest as possible in completing this questionnaire
  • Your answers will be kept confidential
  • Indicate your response by encircling or ticking the relevant option in the boxes provided
Section A: Personal Details
1. Gender
 Male1Female2
2. Age
Below 21 years 1
21–30 years2
31–40 years3
41–50 years4
More than 51 years5
3. Marital Status
NOT married1Married 2
4. Highest Qualification
High school1
Tertiary certificate2
Diploma/degree3
Other (specify)4
5. Current field of study
Applied Sciences1
Business/Commerce2
Engineering3
6. Past employment experience and entrepreneurial knowledge (Mark with an “X” in the appropriate box)
a. Have you ever been employed before?
Yes1No2
b. Are any of your family members or personal connections running a business?
Yes1No2
c. Have you ever tried to start a business before?
Yes1No2
  • Sustainable Entrepreneurship Intentions. To what extent do you agree with the following statements?
Strongly DisagreeDisagreeNeutralAgreeStrongly Agree
I’m ready to do anything to become an environmentally conscious entrepreneur12345
My professional goal is to become an entrepreneur who supports environmentally sustainable business practices12345
I will make every effort to start and run my own business that supports environmentally friendly business practices12345
I am determined to create a business in the future12345
I have a serious thought of starting a business that is environmentally sustainable12345
I have got a firm intention to start a business that runs along environmentally friendly lines someday12345
  • Social approval. Regarding the creation of your business in the near future, to what extent do the following people approve of this decision?
Strongly DisapproveDisapproveNeither Approve nor DisapproveApproveStrongly Approve
Your close family12345
Your friends12345
Your colleagues and mates12345
  • Attitude towards entrepreneurship. Do you agree with the following statements?
Strongly DisagreeDisagreeNeutralAgreeStrongly Agree
A career as entrepreneur is attractive to me12345
- Being an entrepreneur implies more advantages than disadvantages for me12345
- If I had the opportunity and resources, I’d like to start a firm12345
- Being an entrepreneur would entail great satisfactions for me12345
- Among various options, I’d rather be an entrepreneur12345
  • Perceived behavioural control. Do you agree or disagree with the following statements?
Strongly DisagreeDisagreeNeutralAgreeStrongly Agree
Start a firm and keep it working would be easy for me12345
- I’m prepared to start a viable firm 12345
- I can control the creation process of a new firm—I know the necessary practical details to start a firm12345
- I know how to develop an entrepreneurial project
  • Individualistic values. Do you agree or disagree with the following statements?
Strongly DisagreeDisagreeNeutralAgreeStrongly Agree
I’d rather depend on myself than others.12345
I rely on myself most of the time; I rarely rely on others.12345
I often do “my own thing.”12345
My personal identity, independent of others, is very important to me.12345
It is important that I do my job better than others12345
Winning is everything.
When another person does better than I do, I get tense and aroused.

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Socsci 12 00013 g001 550
Figure 1. Diagrammatic representation of hypothesised relationships.
Figure 1. Diagrammatic representation of hypothesised relationships.
Socsci 12 00013 g001
Socsci 12 00013 g002 550
Figure 2. Model test results.
Figure 2. Model test results.
Socsci 12 00013 g002
Table
Table 1. Demographic profile of respondents.
Table 1. Demographic profile of respondents.
Variable FrequencyPercent (%)
GenderMale9645.7
Female11454.3
Age distribution21–30 years6430.5
31–40 years11253.3
41–50 years3215.2
More than 50 years21
Marital statusNot married6832.4
Married14267.7
Previous exposure to entrepreneurship through family business Yes18688.6
No2411.5
Tried starting own business beforeYes18085.7
No3014.3
Table
Table 2. Eigenvalues, percentages of variance, and cumulative percentages for factors for the 23-item variable set.
Table 2. Eigenvalues, percentages of variance, and cumulative percentages for factors for the 23-item variable set.
FactorEigenvalue% of VarianceCumulative %
19.3417.3017.30
Table
Table 3. Results for linear regression with demographic variable predicting sustainable entrepreneurship intention.
Table 3. Results for linear regression with demographic variable predicting sustainable entrepreneurship intention.
VariableBSE95% CIβtp
(Intercept)19.312.24[14.86, 23.77]0.008.61<0.001
Gender: Male0.081.11[−2.13, 2.29]0.010.070.945
Age: 31–40 years1.961.31[−0.64, 4.55]0.191.500.138
Age: 41–55 years1.401.79[−2.16, 4.96]0.100.780.438
Marital Status: Not married1.131.20[−1.25, 3.51]0.100.940.349
Exposure to family business: Yes1.241.75[−2.24, 4.71]0.070.710.482
Tried to start a business before: Yes1.091.58[−2.05, 4.23]0.070.690.492
Note. Results: F(7,97) = 0.65, p = 0.718, R2 = 0.04. Unstandardised Regression Equation: Sustainable entrepreneurship intentions = 19.31 + 0.08*Gender: Male + 1.96*Age: 31–40 years + 1.40*Age: 41–55 years + 1.13*Marital Status: Not married + 1.24*Exposure to family business: Yes + 1.09*Tried to start business before: Yes.
Table
Table 4. Quality criteria.
Table 4. Quality criteria.
VariableAverage Variance ExtractedComposite ReliabilityCronbach Alpha
Attitude towards behaviour0.69240.91810.8881
Individualistic values0.57290.86790.8073
Perceived behavioural control0.56690.83870.7763
Sustainable entrepreneurship intentions0.78830.95710.9463
Subjective norms0.64650.8430.7582
Table
Table 5. Fornell–Larcker criterion.
Table 5. Fornell–Larcker criterion.
Attitude towards BehaviourIndividualistic ValuesPerceived Behavioural ControlSubjective NormsSustainable Entrepreneurship Intentions
Attitude towards behaviour0.832
Individualistic values0.1820.756
Perceived behavioural control0.2660.1660.760
Subjective norms0.3100.1410.1950.810
Sustainable entrepreneurship intentions0.6600.2690.2130.3120.840
Table
Table 6. Heterotrait–monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT).
Table 6. Heterotrait–monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT).
Attitude towards BehaviourIndividualistic ValuesPerceived Behavioural ControlSubjective NormsSustainable Entrepreneurship Intention
Attitude towards behaviour
Individualistic values0.206
Perceived behavioural controls0.2780.186
Subjective norms0.3320.2210.217
Sustainable entrepreneurship intention0.7250.2950.2130.333-
Table
Table 7. F-square effect sizes.
Table 7. F-square effect sizes.
Attitude towards BehaviourPerceived Behavioural ControlSustainable Entrepreneurship Intention
Attitude towards behaviour 0.529
Individualistic values 0.039
Perceived behavioural control 0.000
Subjective norms0.1060.0400.014
Individualistic values × Perceived behavioural control 0.014
Individualistic values × Attitude towards behaviour 0.023
Individualistic values × Subjective norms 0.014
Table
Table 8. Hypotheses test results.
Table 8. Hypotheses test results.
Relationship PathDirectIndirectTotalOutcome
Betap-ValuesBetap-ValuesBetap-Values
H1: ATB → SEI0.5790.000 0.5790.000Significant
H2: SN → SEI0.0930.135 0.270.000Significant
H3: SN → ATB → SEI 0.1800.000 Significant
H4: SN → PBC → SEI −0.0030.829 Not Significant
H5: PBC → SEI−0.0150.808 −0.0150.808Not Significant
H6: IV × ATB → SEI−0.1290.088 −0.1290.088Not Significant
H7: IV × SN → SEI0.0990.165 0.0990.165Not Significant
H8: IV × PBC → SEI0.0960.105 0.0960.105Not Significant
SN → ATB0.3100.000 0.3100.000Significant
SN → PBC0.1950.002 0.1950.002Significant
IV → SEI0.1480.005 0.1480.005Significant
ATB → attitude towards behaviour; SN → subjective norms; PBC → perceived behavioural control; IV → individualistic values; SEI → sustainable entrepreneurship intention.
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Ndofirepi, T.M. Predicting the Sustainability-Oriented Entrepreneurship Intentions of Business School Students: The Role of Individualistic Values. Soc. Sci. 2023, 12, 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12010013

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Ndofirepi TM. Predicting the Sustainability-Oriented Entrepreneurship Intentions of Business School Students: The Role of Individualistic Values. Social Sciences. 2023; 12(1):13. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12010013

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Ndofirepi, Takawira Munyaradzi. 2023. "Predicting the Sustainability-Oriented Entrepreneurship Intentions of Business School Students: The Role of Individualistic Values" Social Sciences 12, no. 1: 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12010013

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