Maritime Transport in the Spanish Economy in the Decades of Consolidation of Democracy (1975–1995)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. State of the Art: The Spanish Case
- A.
- In Spain, the precedents on this subject can be found in the works of Fraga and Seijas (1992) for the port of El Ferrol; De Rús et al. (1994) for the port of Las Palmas; of Villaverde and Coto-Millán (1995, 1996a, 1996b) for the port of Santander; of Lebón Fernández et al. (1999) for the port of Seville They all measure the economic impact of the port in question on the surrounding economy; however, the first two measure the direct effects, while the latter also considers the induced effects.
- B.
- However, we highlight the studies carried out for Santander and Seville at the level of consulting firms (TEMA 1994), which are an adaptation of the existing methodology to evaluate the impact of the port activity on the economy. Work carried out at the request of the public entity Puertos del Estado (1996), which is, in essence, an adaptation of the one already published in 1979 by the aforementioned U.S. Maritime Administration (US Maritime Administration 1979); its most significant contribution is how it adapts the basic model to the Spanish reality. The consultant would work on evaluating the impacts of the activity of the ports of Galicia on the economy of the region and on evaluating the impacts of the activity of the ports of Galicia on the national economy.
- C.
- More recently, they have been analyzed in terms of impact: for Ferrol, De la Peña Zarzuelo et al. (2018); for Coruña, Doldán-García et al. (2011); for Cartagena, Artal-Tur et al. (2016); for Santander, Mateo-Mantecón et al. (2012); for the ports of Gandía, Sagunto and Valencia, see Martí et al. (2009).
3. Sources Used, Methodology and Research Limitations
- On the one hand, we find the change of denomination that occurs in the input–output tables, starting in 1986. This is due to the change in the level of disaggregation of the tables, starting in 1986, when code R.56 is used, which implies a greater specification than code R.44, which is used in the tables based on 1980. In short, we have gone from a breakdown of 44 sectors to 56, allowing for more model information specifications.
- On the other hand, it has been necessary to verify the correspondence between the R.56 classification of the input–output table with the 1974 national classification of economic activities (and even to verify that this has not been modified as far as maritime transport is concerned due to the changes it underwent in 1993) and with the NACE-CLIO (classification of activities for the input–output table followed within the European Union).
4. Maritime Transport: Goods by Types
5. The Gross Value Added of Maritime Transport in the Spanish Economy
Inflation Contribution
6. Conclusions
- In absolute values and real money (pesetas), maritime transport experienced a gradual decline until the nineties, when it would recover due to the adjustments introduced in the eighties and which would be consolidated at the end of this decade.
- Its one-year variation rate concerning the previous year, which has traditionally been negative, in the decade of the nineties (except 1993) also experienced a logical increase with positive values.
- Although the specific weight of maritime transport of goods is relatively modest in the Spanish economy, there was a slight increase in the nineties, after the decline experienced until 1990 when this branch of the economy reached its lowest values.
- The beginning of the eighties experienced a deep inflationary context (both national and international). However, the contribution of maritime transport to the country’s inflation—in line with what has already been stated—reached very little relevance, as can be inferred from the data obtained.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
29 March 1979 | Order | Service Area Management Plans |
16 November 1979 | Royal Decree 2766/1979 | Establishes provincial delegations of the Ministry of Public Works and Urban Development |
10 March 1980 | Law 7/1980 | Protection of Spanish maritime coasts |
18 April 1980 | Royal Decree 821/1980 | Deconcentration of functions in the Peripheral Services and operation of the provincial delegations of the Ministry of Public Works and Town Planning |
23 May 1980 | Royal Decree 1088/1980 | Regulation of 28/1969 Law (4/24/1969) of Coasts |
7 November 1980 | Royal Decree 1432/1980 | Regulations to guarantee the operation of port services |
26 September 1980 | Royal Decree 2486/1980 | Regulation of 55/1969 Law (04/26/1969) of Marinas |
10 March 1980 | Royal Decree 13/1980 | Modification of 27/1968 Law (06/20/1968) of Port Boards and the Statute of Autonomy |
10 October 1980 | Royal Decree 2183/1980 | Suppression and restructuring of central state administration bodies |
21 October 1980 | Royal Decree 2534/1980 | Reestructuración de la Inspección General del Ministerio de Obras Públicas y Urbanismo |
21 October 1980 | Royal Decree 2581/1980 | Transfer of functions and services of the State in matters of territorial and coastal planning and town planning to the General Council of the Basque Country |
12 December 1980 | Royal Decree 2876/1980 | Transfer of State functions and services in the field of ports to the Catalonian Government |
6 March 1981 | Royal Decree 571/1981 | Modification of the organizational structure of the port boards |
6 March 1981 | Royal Decree 572/1981 | Modifies the composition of the Administrative Commission of Groups of Ports |
24 July 1981 | Royal Decree 1801/1981 | Legal regime of the State Administration. Reform of the Peripheral Administration |
13 November 1981 | Royal Decree 2860/1981 | Board of Ports. The autonomous organization of the board of the Port of San Esteban de Pravia is suppressed |
18 December 1981 | Royal Decree 3301/1981 | Transfer of functions and services from the State in matters of coastal management and discharges into the sea to the Catalonian Government |
29 December 1981 | Royal Decree 3317/1981 | The provincial delegations of the Ministry of Public Works and Town Planning will be called Provincial Directorates of Public Works and Town Planning |
5 April 1982 | Law 4/1982 | Creates the Ports Commission of Catalonia |
14 May 1982 | Royal Decree 989/1982 | Classification of Ports of General Interest |
14 May 1982 | Royal Decree 2380/1982 | Transfer of functions and services of the State in port matters to the General Council of the Basque Country |
24 July 1982 | Royal Decree 2623/1982 | Transfer of functions and services from the State in port matters to the Regional Council of Cantabria |
24 July 1982 | Royal Decree 3060/1982 | Transfer of functions and services from the State in the area of land use planning and urban development to the Regional Council of Cantabria |
24 July 1982 | Royal Decree 3082/1982 | Transfer of State functions and services regarding ports to the Principality of Asturias |
24 July 1982 | Royal Decree 3214/1982 | Transfer of State functions and services related to ports to the Autonomous Community of Galicia |
12 August 1982 | Royal Decree 2925/1982 | Transfer of State port functions and services to the Autonomous Community of the Region of Murcia |
16 August 1983 | Law 10/1983 | Organization of the Central State Administration |
25 August 1983 | Royal Decree 3137/1983 | Transfer of State functions and services related to ports to the Autonomous Community of Andalusia |
25 August 1983 | Royal Decree 2803/1983 | Transfer of functions and services of the State in the area of territorial planning and environment to the Autonomous Community of Andalusia |
5 October 1983 | Royal Decree 2821/1983 | Transfer of functions and services of the State in matters of coastal management and discharges to the sea to the Valencian Community |
9 November 1983 | Royal Decree 3510/1983 | Transfer of functions and services from the State in matters of coastal management and discharges into the sea to the Principality of Asturias |
16 November 1983 | Royal Decree 3392/1983 | Transfer of functions and services from the State in matters of coastal management and discharges into the sea to the Principality of Asturias |
28 December 1983 | Royal Decree 3330/1983 | Powers of the Provincial Directors of the Ministry of Public Works and Urban Development |
29 February 1984 | Royal Decree 959/1984 | Transfer of functions and services from the State in matters of coastal management and discharges into the sea to the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands |
28 March 1984 | Royal Decree 898/1984 | Powers of the Provincial Directors of the Ministry of Public Works and Urban Development |
28 March 1984 | Royal Decree 884/1984 | Transfer of functions and services from the State in matters of coastal management and dumping to the Autonomous Community of the Region of Murcia |
20 September 1984 | Resolution | Delegation of powers to Port Directors |
20 February 1985 | Royal Decree 450/1985 | Transfer of functions and services from the State in port matters to the Autonomous Community of the Balearic Islands |
20 February 1985 | Royal Decree 356/1985 | Transfer of functions and services from the State in matters of coastal management and discharges into the sea to the Autonomous Community of the Balearic Islands |
17 April 1985 | Royal Decree 659/1985 | Transfer of functions and services of the State in the field of coastal management and discharges into the sea to the Autonomous Community of Galicia |
12 June 1985 | Treaty | Accession of the Kingdom of Spain to the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community |
01 July 1985 | Law 18/1985 | Modification of 1/1966 Law, (01/28/1966), on the financial regime of ports |
03 July 1985 | Royal Decree 1654/1985 | Structure of the Ministry of Public Works and Urbanism |
20 September 1985 | Instrument | Accession of the Kingdom of Spain to the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community |
9 October 1985 | Royal Decree 2680/1985 | Suppresses the provincial directorates of the Ministry of Public Works and Urban Development |
23 October 1985 | Royal Decree 2250/1985 | Transfer of functions and services from the State in port matters to the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands |
27 December 1985 | Royal Decree 2546/1985 | Economic financial policy of the port system dependent on the State Administration |
1 January 1986 | Treaty | Instrument of Accession to the Treaty establishing the Economic Community for Coal and Steel |
7 February 1986 | Order | New organization of the provincial and regional services of the Ministry of Public Works and Urbanism |
23 May 1986 | Royal Decree, Law 2/1986 | Public stevedoring and unstowage service |
28 June1986 | Royal Decree, Law 1302/1986 | Environmental impact assessment |
23 January 1987 | Royal Decree 89/1987 | Modifies the organizational structure of the Ministry of Public Works and Urbanism |
13 March 1987 | Royal Decree 371/1987 | Regulates the Royal Decree Law 2/86, dated 23/05/1986, on the public stevedoring and unstowage service |
15 April 1987 | Order | Establishes the basis for managing the public stevedoring and unstowage service |
30 September1988 | Royal Decree 1131/1988 | Regulation of the Royal Decree Law 1302/86, (06/28/1986), of environment and environmental impact |
28 July 1988 | Law 22/1988 | Coastal Law |
9 December1988 | Royal Decree 1476/1988 | Guarantees the provision of essential services in strike situations in the area of competence of the Ministry of Public Works and Urban Development |
1 January 1989 | Royal Decree 1471/1989 | General regulations for the development of the 2/1988 Law, (07/28/1988), Coastal Law |
2 August 1991 | Royal Decree 1316/1991 | Restructuring of the State Secretariat for Water and Environmental Policies, under the Ministry of Public Works and Transport |
24 November 1992 | Law 27/1992 | Law of State Ports and Merchant Navy |
23 December 1992 | Royal Decree 1590/1992 | Creates the Port Authorities |
12 May 1993 | Royal Decree 685/1993 | Legal assistance to Public Entities, State Ports and Port Authorities |
21 January 1994 | Royal Decree 58/1994 | Provision of essential port services |
28 April 1994 | Order | Assignment of coastal lighting and maritime signaling installations to the Port Authorities |
14 July 1995 | Royal Decree 1246/1995 | Constitution and creation of the Maritime Captaincies |
2 August 1995 | Order | General conditions for the granting of concessions in the service area of ports of general interest |
27 December 1995 | Order | Plan for the use of the port areas of the port and estuary of Ferrol |
27 February 1996 | Order | Structure and operation of the Lighthouse Commission |
1 March 1996 | Royal Decree 392/1996 | Recording in the special registry of ships and shipping companies, cabotage traffic |
1 March 996 | Royal Decree 393/1996 | Port pilotage, general regulations |
14 June 1996 | Order | Inscription in the registry of private educational foundations of the “Fundación Portuaria” of Madrid |
21 June 1996 | Royal Decree 1535/1996 | Separation of the administration, management and operation of the ports of Gijón-Musel and Avilés in the Public Administration of Gijón and Avilés |
2 July 1997 | Royal Decree 161/1997 | Regulations of the General Deposit Fund |
26 December 1997 | Law 62/1997 | New Law of State Ports and the Merchant Navy |
15 January 1998 | Order | Military pilotage regulations |
11 May1998 | Order | Amendments to the Articles of Incorporation of the Vigo Free Trade Zone Consortium |
30 July 1998 | Order | Regime of tariffs for port services rendered by Port Authorities |
16 October 1998 | Royal Decree 2221/1998 | Registration in the special registry of ships and shipping companies, cabotage traffic |
30 November 1998 | Resolution | Operation of the Free Trade Zone of Gran Canaria |
16 Deceber 1998 | Order | Regime of tariffs for port services rendered by the Port Authorities |
30 December 1998 | Law 48/1998 | Procurement procedures in the water, energy, transport and telecommunications sector |
21 January1999 | Order | Modification of the category of the Avilés Maritime Captaincy |
2 February 1999 | Order | Fees for services rendered by the Sociedad Estatal de Salvamento y Seguridad Marítima (State Society for Rescue and Maritime Safety) |
9 April 1999 | Royal Decree 4/1999 | Urgent measures to repair the damage caused by the torrential rains and the storm of January 1999 in the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands |
Appendix B
Groupings | |
---|---|
Energy group | |
1 | Crude oil |
2 | Fuel oil |
3 | Diesel oil |
4 | Petrol |
6 | Other petroleum products |
7 | Oil energy gases |
35 | Natural gas |
12A (12) | Coal and oil coke |
12B (12) | Siderurgical use coal |
Siderurgy group | |
8 | Iron ore |
11 | Scraps |
13 | Siderurgical products |
Metallurgical group | |
9 | Pyrites and burnt pyrites |
10 | Other minerals and metallic residues |
36 | Other metallurgical products |
Fertilizers group | |
14 | Phosphates |
15 | Potash |
16 | Natural and artificial fertilizers |
Chemical products group | |
17 | Chemical products |
Construction materials group | |
5 | Asphalt |
18 | Cement and clinker |
20 | Construction materials |
Agricultural, livestock and food group | |
21 | Grains and their flours |
22 | Beans and soya flour |
23 | Fruits and vegetables |
24 | Wine, drinks and alcohol |
25 | Tinned food |
28 | Tobacco, cocoa and coffee |
29 | Oils and greases |
30 | Other food stuffs |
33 | Frozen fish |
37 | Horse food and forage |
Other merchandise group | |
19 | Wood and cork |
25 | Salt |
26 | Paper and pulp |
31 | Machinery and parts |
34 | Other goods |
Special transport group | |
32 | Cars and parts |
38 | Vehicle tariffs and charge rates |
39 | Containers |
40 | Merchandise in transit containers |
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Years | 1975 | 1980 | 1985 | 1990 | 1995 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Groupings | |||||
Energy | 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 34 | 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, | 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, | 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 35, 12A | 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 35, 12 |
Siderurgy | 8, 11, 13 | 8, 11, 12, 13 | 8, 11, 12, 13 | 8, 11, 12B, 13 | 8, 11, 13 |
Metallurgical | 9, 10 | 9, 10 | 9, 10 | 9, 10, 36 | 9, 10, 36 |
Fertilizers | 14, 15, 16 | 14, 15, 16 | 14, 15, 16 | 14, 15, 16 | 14, 15, 16, |
Chemical Products | 17 | 17 | 17 | 17 | |
Construction Materials | 18, 19, 20 | 18, 19, 20 | 18, 19, 20 | 5, 18, 20 | 5, 18, 20 |
Agricultural, Livestock and Food | 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 | 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 | 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 | 21,22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 37 | 21,22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 37 |
Other Goods | 31, 32, 33, 34 | 31, 32, 33, 34 | 31, 32, 33, 34 | 19,25,26,31, 34 | 19,25,26,31, 34 |
Special Transports | 32, 38, 39, 40 | 32, 38, 39, 40 |
Years | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1975 | 1980 | 1985 | 1990 | 1995 | |
Groups | |||||
Energy | 9.45 × 107 | 1.12 × 108 | 1.12 × 108 | 1.21 × 108 | 1.21 × 108 |
Siderurgy | 23,850,518 | 27,758,124 | 29,259,446 | 25,648,783 | 22,421,537 |
Metallurgical | 6,878,845 | 8,665,482 | 10,320,105 | 9,883,692 | 7,422,152 |
Fertilizers | 5,189,411 | 5,242,261 | 4,989,551 | 6,234,835 | 6,337,738 |
Chemical Products | No data | 2,595,642 | 4,900,585 | 8,107,665 | 11,998,003 |
Construction Materials | 9,789,592 | 17,640,723 | 14,850,574 | 20,997,110 | 20,542,047 |
Agricultural, Livestock and Food | 12,936,054 | 17,100,632 | 18,043,843 | 24,144,917 | 42,702,421 |
Other Merchandise | 8,420,530 | 13,214,121 | 12,602,965 | 11,171,820 | 17,788,284 |
Special Transport | 1,364,664 | 2,784,121 | 3,970,177 | 15,940,171 | 27,508,688 |
Totals | 1.63 × 108 | 2.07 × 108 | 2.11 × 108 | 2.43 × 108 | 2.78 × 108 |
Years | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1975 | 1980 | 1985 | 1990 | 1995 | |
Groups | |||||
Energy | 57.997 | 54.106 | 53.096 | 49.794 | 43.525 |
Siderurgy | 14.640 | 13.410 | 13.871 | 10.555 | 8.083 |
Metallurgical | 4.222 | 4.186 | 4.893 | 4.067 | 2.675 |
Fertilizers | 3.185 | 2.532 | 2.365 | 2.566 | 2.284 |
Chemical Products | 1.254 | 2.365 | 3.374 | 4.325 | |
Construction Materials | 6.009 | 8.529 | 6.999 | 8.741 | 7.406 |
Agicultural, Livestock and Food | 7.940 | 8.261 | 8.554 | 10.051 | 15.394 |
Other Merchandise | 5.169 | 6.384 | 5.975 | 4.597 | 6.399 |
Special Transport | 0.838 | 1.345 | 1.882 | 6.560 | 9.895 |
Totals | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
Gross Added Value (Millions of Ptas ***.) | Rate of Change (Percent per 1) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Year | Real = Kte * | Current = nom ** | Real = Kte | Current = nom |
1994 | 68.176 | 82.210 | 0.1262 | 0.2061 |
1993 | 60.538 | 73.135 | −0.0453 | 0.0596 |
1992 | 63.412 | 69.021 | 0.0418 | 0.0817 |
1991 | 60.867 | 63.810 | 0.0590 | −0.0081 |
1990 | 57.476 | 64.328 | −0.1664 | −0.1950 |
1989 | 68.949 | 79.909 | −0.0206 | 0.0124 |
1988 | 70.399 | 78.929 | −0.0315 | 0.0378 |
1987 | 72.690 | 76.057 | −0.0197 | 0.0257 |
1986 | 74.154 | 74.154 | −0.0469 | −0.1156 |
1985 | 77.807 | 83.848 | −0.0080 | 0.0209 |
1984 | 78.431 | 82.134 | −0.0392 | 0.0057 |
1983 | 80.893 | 81.665 | −0.0315 | 0.1352 |
1982 | 77.930 | 71.684 | −0.0366 | 0.0694 |
1981 | 80.891 | 67.034 | −0.0030 | 0.1294 |
1980 | 81.138 | 59.352 |
Gross Added Value (Millions of Ptas.) | Rate of Change (Percent per 1) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Year | Real = Kte * | Current = nom ** | Real = Kte | Current = nom |
1994 | 38,229,848 | 60,924,642 | 0.0230 | 0.0598 |
1993 | 37,370,313 | 57,488,714 | −0.0088 | 0.0408 |
1992 | 37,701,134 | 55,233,623 | 0.0065 | 0.0721 |
1991 | 37,458,924 | 51,520,116 | 0.0218 | 0.0961 |
1990 | 36,658,195 | 47,003,587 | 0.0384 | 0.1181 |
1989 | 35,303,649 | 42,038,532 | 0.0460 | 0.1200 |
1988 | 33,750,800 | 37,533,690 | 0.0497 | 0.1094 |
1987 | 32,151,593 | 33,831,103 | 0.0532 | 0.1082 |
1986 | 30,527,043 | 30,527,043 | 0.0316 | 0.1524 |
1985 | 29,590,832 | 26,490,434 | 0.0242 | 0.1094 |
1984 | 28,891,383 | 23,878,836 | 0.0173 | 0.1311 |
1983 | 28,399,959 | 21,111,140 | 0.0189 | 1.1352 |
1982 | 27,873,412 | 18,596,268 | 0.0109 | 0.1496 |
1981 | 27,572,063 | 16,176,610 | −0.0110 | 0.1174 |
1980 | 27,601,731 | 14,477,391 |
Maritime Transportation Branch | Total Branches of Activity | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Years | Deflator | Rate | Deflator | Rate |
1994 | 129.3857 | 0.0710 | 159.3641 | 3.5940 |
1993 | 120.8084 | 0.1099 | 153.8352 | 5.0042 |
1992 | 108.8453 | 0.0383 | 146.5039 | 6.5191 |
1991 | 104.8351 | −0.0633 | 137.5376 | 7.2659 |
1990 | 111.9215 | −0.0343 | 128.2212 | 7.6792 |
1989 | 115.8958 | 0.0037 | 119.0770 | 7.0757 |
1988 | 112.1166 | 0.0715 | 111.2083 | 5.6875 |
1987 | 104.6320 | 0.0463 | 105.2237 | 5.2237 |
1986 | 100.0000 | −0.0721 | 100.0000 | 11.7038 |
1985 | 107.7645 | 0.0291 | 89.5224 | 8.3146 |
1984 | 104.7206 | 0.0385 | 82.6504 | 11.1862 |
1983 | 100.8424 | 0.0963 | 74.3351 | 11.4188 |
1982 | 91.9852 | 0.1100 | 66.7169 | 13.7149 |
1981 | 82.8697 | 0.1329 | 58.6703 | 11.8573 |
1980 | 73.1488 | 52.4150 |
Specific Weight of the Branch in the Total | MTA. Inflation | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Year | Real = Kte | Current = nom | Real = Kte | Current = nom |
1994 | 0.1783 | 1.1448 | 0.0710 | 0.0090 |
1993 | 0.1620 | 0.1272 | 0.1099 | 0.0137 |
1992 | 0.1682 | 0.1250 | 0.0383 | 0.0047 |
1991 | 0.1625 | 0.1239 | −0.0633 | −0.0087 |
1990 | 0.1568 | 1.1369 | −0.0343 | −0.0065 |
1989 | 0.1953 | 0.1901 | 0.0337 | 0.0071 |
1988 | 0.2086 | 0.2103 | 0.0715 | 0.0161 |
1987 | 0.2261 | 0.2248 | 0.0463 | 0.0113 |
1986 | 0.2429 | 0.2429 | −0.0721 | −0.0228 |
1985 | 0.2629 | 0.3165 | 0.0291 | 0.0100 |
1984 | 0.2715 | 0.3440 | 0.0385 | 0.0149 |
1983 | 0.2852 | 0.3868 | 0.0963 | 0.0371 |
1982 | 0.2796 | 0.3855 | 0.1100 | 0.0456 |
1981 | 0.2934 | 0.4144 | 0.1329 | 0.0456 |
1980 | 0.2940 | 0.4100 | 0.0545 |
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Zamarreño-Aramendia, G.; Ruiz-Romero de la Cruz, E. Maritime Transport in the Spanish Economy in the Decades of Consolidation of Democracy (1975–1995). Soc. Sci. 2022, 11, 516. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11110516
Zamarreño-Aramendia G, Ruiz-Romero de la Cruz E. Maritime Transport in the Spanish Economy in the Decades of Consolidation of Democracy (1975–1995). Social Sciences. 2022; 11(11):516. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11110516
Chicago/Turabian StyleZamarreño-Aramendia, Gorka, and Elena Ruiz-Romero de la Cruz. 2022. "Maritime Transport in the Spanish Economy in the Decades of Consolidation of Democracy (1975–1995)" Social Sciences 11, no. 11: 516. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11110516
APA StyleZamarreño-Aramendia, G., & Ruiz-Romero de la Cruz, E. (2022). Maritime Transport in the Spanish Economy in the Decades of Consolidation of Democracy (1975–1995). Social Sciences, 11(11), 516. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11110516