Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and Timely Bachelor’s Degree Attainment †
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Background Literature
2.1. ACEs and Cumulative Effects
2.2. ACEs and Educational Outcomes
2.3. ACEs, Socio-Emotional Well-Being, Health, and Educational Attainment
2.3.1. ACEs and Socio-Emotional Well-Being
2.3.2. Socio-Emotional Well-Being and Educational Attainment
2.3.3. ACEs and Health
2.3.4. Health and Educational Attainment
2.4. Moving Forward
3. Methods
3.1. Data and Sample
3.2. Analytic Sample
3.3. Measures
3.3.1. Timely Bachelor’s Degree Completion
3.3.2. ACEs Measure
3.3.3. ACE Score
3.3.4. Control Variables
3.3.5. Potential Mediators
3.4. Missing Values
3.5. Analysis Plan
4. Results
4.1. Additional Findings
4.2. Nonlinear Analysis
5. Discussion
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Domain | ACE Questionnaire | ACE Add Health Measures | Wave | Current Study |
---|---|---|---|---|
While you were growing up, during your first 18 years of life: | ||||
Emotional abuse | 1. Did a parent or other adult in the household often… Swear at you, insult you, put you down, or humiliate you? or Act in a way that made you afraid that you might by physically hurt? Yes No | Before your 18th birthday, how often did a parent or other adult caregiver say things that really hurt your feelings or made you feel like you were not wanted or loved? 1. one time 2. two times 3. three to five times 4. six to ten times 5. more than ten times 6. this never happened | IV | 1 = 1 time or more 0 = 6 this never happened |
Physical Abuse | 2. Did a parent or other adult in the household often… Push, grab, slap, or throw something at you? or Ever hit you so hard that you had marks or were injured? Yes No | Before the time you started 6th grade, how often had your parents or other adult care-givers slapped, hit, or kicked you? 1. one time 2. two times 3. three to five times 4. six to ten times 5. more than ten times 6. this never happened | III | 1 = 1 time or more 0 = 6 this never happened |
Sexual Abuse | 3. Did an adult or person at least 5 years older than you ever … Touch or fondle you or have you touch their body in a sexual way? or try to actually have oral, anal, or vaginal sex with you? Yes No | Before the time you started 6th grade, how often had your parents or other adult care-givers touched you in a sexual way, forced you to touch him or her in a sexual way, or forced you to have sexual relations? 1. one time 2. two times 3. three to five times 4. six to ten times 5. more than ten times 6. this never happened | III | 1 = 1 time or more 0 = 6 this never happened |
Emotional Neglect | 4. Did you often feel that… No one in your family loved you or thought you were important or special? or Your family didn’t look out for each other, feel close to each other, or support each other? Yes No | Most of the time, your mother is warm and loving toward you. or Most of the time, your father is warm and loving toward you. 1. strongly agree 2. agree 3. neither agree nor disagree 4. disagree 5. strongly disagree | I | 1 = 5 strongly disagree 0 = 1 strongly agree – 4 disagree |
Physical Neglect | 5. Did you often feel that… You didn’t have enough to eat, had to wear dirty clothes, and had no one to protect you? or Your patents were too drunk or high to take care of you or take you to the doctor if you needed it? Yes No | By the time you started 6th grade, how often had your parents or other adult care-givers left you home alone when an adult should have been with you? or By the time you started 6th grade, how often had your parents or other adult care-givers not taken care of your basic needs, such as keeping you clean or providing food or clothing? 1. one time 2. two times 3. three to five times 4. six to ten times 5. more than ten times 6. this never happened | III | 1 = 1 time or more 0 = 6 this never happened |
Parental Separation or Divorce | 6. Were your parents ever separated or divorced? Yes No | Constructed using parental questionnaire | I | 1 = both biological parents living in home 0 = All other family structures |
Mother Treated Violently | 7. Was your mother or stepmother: Often pushed, grabbed, slapped, or had something thrown at her? or Sometimes or often kicked, bitten, hit with a fist, or hit with something had? or Ever repeatedly hit over at least a few minutes or threatened with a gun or knife? Yes No | How much do you fight or argue with your current (spouse/partner)? 1. a lot 2. some 3. a little 4. not at all | I | 1 = 1 a lot 0 = 2 some – 4 not at all |
Household Substance Abuse | 8. Did you live with anyone who was a problem drinker or alcoholic or who used street drugs? Yes No | Alcoholism… (His/her) biological father has? or (His/her) biological mother has? 0 no; 1 yes or Are illegal drugs easily available to you in your home? 0 no; 1 yes | I | 1 = 1 yes 0 = 0 no |
Mental Illness in Household | 9. Was a household member depressed or mentally ill or did a household member attempt suicide? Yes No | In general, are you (main parent respondent) happy? or In general do you think (he/she) (main parent respondent’s partner or spouse) is happy? 0 no; 1 yes or Have any of your family tried to kill themselves during the past 12 months? 0 no; 1 yes | I | 1 = 1 yes 0 = 0 no |
Criminal Involvement by Household Member | 10. Did a household member go to prison? Yes No | (Has/did your biological mother ever (spent/spend) time in jail or prison? or (Has/did) your biological father ever (spent/spend) time in jail or prison? or (Has/did) your (mother figure) ever (spent/spend) time in jail or prison? or (Has/did) your (father figure) ever (spent/spend) time in jail or prison? 0 no; 1 yes | IV | 1 = 1 yes 0 = 0 no |
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1 | In comparison to the CDC ACE study data referenced above, the current study sample has more incidences of ACEs. In the CDC study, 36% of individuals had no ACEs. This may be because of the age of the sample. The CDC sample is older, includes individuals that did not graduate from high school, has a larger proportion of both white and female participants. Furthermore, the study was not nationally representative or longitudinal. |
Mean | SD | ||
---|---|---|---|
Dependent Variable: | |||
Timely Bachelor’s Degree Attainment | BA = 1 No BA = 0 | 0.26 | -- |
Independent Variable: | |||
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACES) | 2.12 | 1.61 | |
Physical and Socio-emotional Well-being | |||
General Health | |||
Self-reported health in Wave I; ranges from 1 “poor” to 5 “excellent” | 3.89 | 0.90 | |
Depression | 5.61 | 4.15 | |
Scale of 9 measures self-reported in Wave I; ranges from 0 to 27 | |||
Highest Parental Education Level | |||
Highest education level received by either parent in Wave I. | Less than HS = 0.10 | -- | |
HS = 0.38 | |||
Some College = 0.20 | |||
BA/S or higher = 0.33 | |||
Family Income | |||
Parent reported household income before taxes (logged) in Wave I | 10.42 | 0.88 | |
Public Assistance | |||
Currently receiving public assistance (parent-reported in Wave I) | Yes = 1 No = 0 | 0.08 | -- |
College Going | |||
Aspirations | How much do you want to go to college; scale 1–5 | 4.44 | 1.02 |
Expectations | How likely is it that you will go to college; scale 1–5 | 4.17 | 1.14 |
Other Controls | |||
Learning disability | |||
Have specific learning disability; parent-reported in Wave I | Yes = 1 No = 0 | 0.13 | -- |
Cognitive Achievement | |||
Add Health Vocab Test administered in Wave I; scores range from 14 to 146 | 65.94 | 10.43 | |
Child Age | Current age in years; ranges from 25 to 34 | 28.98 | 1.86 |
Child Sex | Male = 1; Female = 0 | 0.50 | -- |
Child Race | White = 1; Nonwhite = 0 | 0.67 | -- |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ACEs | 0.718 *** | 0.820 *** | 0.828 *** | 0.829 *** | 0.833 *** |
(0.016) | (0.018) | (0.019) | (0.019) | (0.019) | |
Physical/Socio-emotional Wellbeing | |||||
General Health | 1.390 *** | 1.375 *** | |||
(0.057) | (0.058) | ||||
Depression | 0.974 *** | 0.988 | |||
(0.007) | (0.008) | ||||
Highest Parental Education Level | |||||
Reference: High School | |||||
Less than HS | 0.797 | 0.805 | 0.806 | 0.809 | |
(0.163) | (0.166) | (0.166) | (0.167) | ||
Some College | 1.047 | 1.040 | 1.029 | 1.027 | |
(0.106) | (0.105) | (0.105) | (0.105) | ||
Bachelor’s degree or higher | 2.572 *** | 2.571 *** | 2.526 *** | 2.527 *** | |
(0.239) | (0.241) | (0.241) | (0.242) | ||
Family Income | 1.573 *** | 1.583 *** | 1.572*** | 1.577 *** | |
(0.119) | (0.120) | (0.120) | (0.120) | ||
Public Assistance | 0.792 | 0.796 | 0.792 | 0.794 | |
(0.166) | (0.168) | (0.169) | (0.170) | ||
College Going | |||||
Aspirations | 1.451 *** | 1.435 *** | 1.422 *** | 1.416 *** | |
(0.098) | (0.097) | (0.095) | (0.095) | ||
Expectations | 2.048 *** | 2.013 *** | 1.970 *** | 1.957 *** | |
(0.135) | (0.134) | (0.130) | (0.130) | ||
Other Controls | |||||
Learning Disability | 0.313 *** | 0.315 *** | 0.330 *** | 0.330 *** | |
(0.051) | (0.051) | (0.054) | (0.054) | ||
Cognitive Achievement | 1.051 *** | 1.050 *** | 1.052 *** | 1.051 *** | |
(0.005) | (0.005) | (0.005) | (0.005) | ||
Child Age | 0.907 *** | 0.914 *** | 0.908 *** | 0.911 *** | |
(0.021) | (0.022) | (0.022) | (0.022) | ||
Child Sex | 0.679 *** | 0.658 *** | 0.635 *** | 0.627 *** | |
(0.050) | (0.049) | (0.047) | (0.047) | ||
Child Race | 0.801 * | 0.795 * | 0.794 * | 0.792 * | |
(0.077) | (0.077) | (0.077) | (0.077) | ||
Constant | 0.648 *** | 0.000 *** | 0.000 *** | 0.000 *** | 0.000 *** |
(0.061) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | |
n | 13,446 | 13,446 | 13,446 | 13,446 | 13,446 |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ACEs | |||||
Reference: 0 ACEs | |||||
1 | 0.741 ** | 0.849 | 0.861 | 0.859 | 0.864 |
(0.068) | (0.084) | (0.085) | (0.088) | (0.088) | |
2 | 0.536 *** | 0.736 ** | 0.754 ** | 0.763 ** | 0.770 * |
(0.046) | (0.073) | (0.074) | (0.076) | (0.076) | |
3 | 0.364 *** | 0.578 *** | 0.597 *** | 0.602 *** | 0.610 *** |
(0.038) | (0.067) | (0.070) | (0.071) | (0.072) | |
4 + | 0.231 *** | 0.415 *** | 0.436 *** | 0.437 *** | 0.446 *** |
(0.026) | (0.050) | (0.053) | (0.053) | (0.055) | |
Physical/Socio-emotional Wellbeing | |||||
General Health | 1.392 *** | 1.376 *** | |||
(0.057) | (0.058) | ||||
Depression | 0.973 *** | 0.987 | |||
(0.007) | (0.008) | ||||
Highest Parental Education Level | |||||
Reference: High School | |||||
Less than HS | 0.794 | 0.802 | 0.803 | 0.807 | |
(0.162) | (0.163) | (0.164) | (0.165) | ||
Some College | 1.041 | 1.035 | 1.024 | 1.022 | |
(0.105) | (0.105) | (0.104) | (0.104) | ||
Bachelor’s degree or higher | 2.571 *** | 2.570 *** | 2.526 *** | 2.527 *** | |
(0.239) | (0.241) | (0.241) | (0.242) | ||
Family Income | 1.576 *** | 1.586 *** | 1.575 *** | 1.580 *** | |
(0.118) | (0.120) | (0.119) | (0.120) | ||
Public Assistance | 0.781 | 0.786 | 0.783 | 0.785 | |
(0.164) | (0.166) | (0.166) | (0.167) | ||
College Going | |||||
Aspirations | 1.454 *** | 1.438 *** | 1.425 *** | 1.419 *** | |
(0.098) | (0.097) | (0.095) | (0.095) | ||
Expectations | 2.051 *** | 2.015 *** | 1.973 *** | 1.959 *** | |
(0.136) | (0.134) | (0.131) | (0.130) | ||
Other Controls | |||||
Learning Disability | 0.311 *** | 0.314 *** | 0.328 *** | 0.329 *** | |
(0.051) | (0.051) | (0.054) | (0.054) | ||
Cognitive Achievement | 1.051 *** | 1.050 *** | 1.052 *** | 1.051 *** | |
(0.005) | (0.005) | (0.005) | (0.005) | ||
Child Age | 0.907 *** | 0.914 *** | 0.908 *** | 0.911 *** | |
(0.021) | (0.022) | (0.022) | (0.022) | ||
Child Sex | 0.683 *** | 0.661 *** | 0.638 *** | 0.629 *** | |
(0.050) | (0.049) | (0.047) | (0.047) | ||
Child Race | 0.803 * | 0.798 * | 0.797 * | 0.795 * | |
(0.077) | (0.077) | (0.077) | (0.077) | ||
Constant | 0.634 *** | 0.000 *** | 0.000 *** | 0.000 *** | 0.000 *** |
(0.068) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | |
n | 13,446 | 13,446 | 13,446 | 13,446 | 13,446 |
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Otero, C. Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and Timely Bachelor’s Degree Attainment . Soc. Sci. 2021, 10, 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10020044
Otero C. Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and Timely Bachelor’s Degree Attainment . Social Sciences. 2021; 10(2):44. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10020044
Chicago/Turabian StyleOtero, Carolina. 2021. "Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and Timely Bachelor’s Degree Attainment " Social Sciences 10, no. 2: 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10020044