Integrating Construction and Operation of Large Interorganizational Projects Based on Resource Orchestration: A Case Study of Shanghai Airports

Abstract

The separation of construction and operation is a prevalent challenge in large interorganizational projects (LIPs). This study focuses on the integration of construction and operation (ICO) in such projects, aiming to explore how the resource orchestration theory can facilitate the seamless integration of construction and operation. Using Shanghai Airport Group as a case study, this research adopts a longitudinal single-case study approach to analyze 41 years of ICO practices from a full project lifecycle perspective. This study identifies three key phases—synergy, integration, and fusion—and systematically analyzes their respective drivers, actions, and outcomes. Furthermore, grounded in the resource orchestration theory, this study unveils the dynamic evolution mechanism of the ICO in large interorganizational projects. The findings indicate that achieving comprehensive and seamless integration requires project organizers to identify or establish key resources in human capital, technology, and organizational culture. Moreover, through planning alignment and organizational coordination mechanisms, these resources can be effectively connected, transformed, and expanded to facilitate the ICO. By synthesizing practical insights and theoretical deductions, this study provides strategic guidance for enterprises and governments in managing the ICO in large interorganizational projects.

1. Introduction

With the increasing complexity of construction projects, many of them have surpassed the boundaries of a single organization, resulting in the emergence of large interorganizational projects (LIPs). Examples include the Boston Tunnel Project—commonly known as the “Big Dig”—initiated in 1982, the Honolulu High-Capacity Transit Corridor Project in 2006, and the Sutong Bridge Project in Jiangsu Province, China, in 2008. At the macro level, LIPs are often large-scale infrastructure projects, such as transportation hubs, public facilities, and energy infrastructures. These projects directly influence regional economic growth, enhance the modernization of social infrastructure, and expand the quality and coverage of public services. At the micro level, LIPs involve multi-party collaboration and present considerable technical challenges. Consequently, participants in LIPs seek to strengthen resource-sharing mechanisms, facilitate knowledge integration, improve technical expertise, strengthen management capabilities, and increase market influence. Despite their profound societal and business impact, LIPs face substantial risks, with the most critical being the separation of construction and operation [1]. Specifically, construction teams often prioritize objectives such as schedule, quality, cost, and safety, focusing on contract compliance to ensure timely returns, while downplaying the sustainability and efficiency of subsequent operations. This emphasis on construction over operations frequently results in projects being delivered with insufficient functionality, high operational costs, and poor user experience, thereby undermining their long-term benefits and social value [2,3]. In fact, many LIPs fail to meet basic operational and usage expectations after delivery [4]. For example, the Dubai World Trade Centre (DWTC) project encountered challenges due to insufficient coordination between construction and operational teams. During its initial operational phase, certain facilities failed to meet usage demands, and subsequent maintenance costs became exorbitantly high. According to DWTC’s 2017 financial report, operational costs exceeded initial estimates by approximately 18%, with operating and maintenance expenses accounting for more than 60% of total revenue, significantly impacting net profit. In summary, the separation of construction and operation often leads to suboptimal functionality, high operational costs, and poor user experience after project delivery, ultimately compromising the long-term benefits and societal value of such projects. Consequently, addressing the longstanding issue of construction–operation separation has become a key challenge that stakeholders in LIPs, including governments and enterprises, must urgently tackle.

To bridge the gap between construction and operation, the integration of construction and operation (ICO) has emerged as a global trend in infrastructure development. In 2019, the Civil Aviation Administration of China officially included the “Integrated Management System for Civil Airport Construction and Operation” in its catalog of new engineering and management technologies. Under this policy framework, several major airport projects—including Beijing Daxing International Airport, Shanghai Pudong International Airport, Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport, Chengdu Tianfu International Airport, Shenzhen Bao’an International Airport, and Xi’an Xianyang International Airport—have adopted the concept of the ICO, yielding significant results. By incorporating operational requirements into the planning and construction phases and implementing a full lifecycle management approach, these projects have successfully optimized facility operations, enhanced passenger experiences, and stimulated regional economic growth.

However, from a theoretical perspective, research on the ICO remains underdeveloped. First, there is no consensus among scholars and practitioners regarding the definition, scope, and application of the ICO, leading to inconsistencies and fragmentation in theoretical discussions. Second, existing research has not thoroughly examined the internal mechanisms that enable the ICO, particularly how project organizers allocate resources throughout the project lifecycle to facilitate seamless integration. For example, how can different phases of a project be identified from a resource perspective? What are the key resource orchestration priorities at different stages of an LIP? How can existing resources be leveraged to effectively integrate construction and operation? Answering these questions is crucial for ensuring the smooth transition from construction to operation in LIPs. The theoretical immaturity and insufficiency of research on the ICO hinder its widespread application and implementation in LIP management. Therefore, this study aims to explore the resource allocation logic in LIPs during the construction and operation phases, particularly how the transition from the “separation of construction and operation” to the “ICO” can be achieved through the lens of the resource orchestration theory. Using Shanghai Airport as a case study, this research employs a longitudinal single-case study approach to analyze the evolutionary process of resource allocation across different phases of the project, identifying key mechanisms that facilitate the deep ICO. This study seeks to address the following research questions:

(i)

How can different phases of the ICO in LIPs be identified from a resource perspective?

(ii)

What are the key resource orchestration priorities at different stages of an LIP?

(iii)

How can LIPs dynamically adjust resource orchestration based on external demands?

This study aims to contribute to the theoretical understanding of coordination mechanisms between construction and operation in LIPs. This research makes three key contributions:

First, the Shanghai Airport case offers a long-term perspective encompassing multiple LIP construction projects. This enables an in-depth examination of firms’ resource orchestration motivations, behaviors, and outcomes under varying degrees of the ICO, addressing issues related to the external validity and generalizability of single-case studies.

Second, this study applies the resource orchestration theory to analyze the realization mechanisms of the ICO, particularly how dynamic resource allocation and integration throughout the project lifecycle facilitate seamless transitions between construction and operation. Specifically, it offers insights into how different phases of the ICO can be systematically identified through resource orchestration.

Finally, this study introduces a resource orchestration framework with distinct phase-based variations. This framework provides both a novel theoretical tool for understanding the ICO in LIPs and practical insights for project managers. Specifically, it enables them to identify and adjust critical resource allocations at different project stages in response to evolving external environments and stakeholder demands, thereby achieving sustainable project development and maximizing long-term value.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 presents the literature review. Section 3 outlines the research design, including the methodology, case selection, and data collection and analysis. Section 4 provides an in-depth case study analysis. Section 5 develops a resource orchestration framework for the ICO in LIPs. Section 6 concludes with theoretical and managerial implications.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Conceptual Research on ICO

Construction and operation are essential phases in delivering project value [5,6]. Construction involves the processes of planning, design, and execution to create new infrastructure or renovate existing structures, whereas project operation refers to activities that provide repetitive and continuous services to users based on infrastructure [7,8]. In this process, the design phase determines the structural framework of the infrastructure according to specific requirements [9]. LIPs are constructed following these design specifications, where high-quality design and construction lay the foundation for project facilities. Effective operational management practices can significantly reduce enterprise costs and enhance overall efficiency [10]. However, poor coordination between construction and operation can lead to increased overall costs [11,12]. Consequently, there is a growing recognition of the need to manage LIPs—which consist of multiple sub-projects—as integrated project groups with a unified overarching objective, rather than treating them as independent projects [13,14,15]. The ICO enhances accountability, reduces human resource costs, optimizes personnel structures, strengthens risk control, and accelerates project closure [16]. Moreover, considering operational environmental factors comprehensively during the design phase enhances the overall project value [17].

Nie Yonghua [18] and Li Jinming [19] defined the concept based on airport construction practices. The former focused on the integration of project decision-making, planning, design, construction, operation, and development throughout the entire project lifecycle, emphasizing the relationships, coordination of interests, and optimization of resource utilization. The latter emphasized the coordination and unification of construction and operation functions. Xu Qiang [20] explored the infrastructure of the ICO model, defining it as a process where both construction and operation of an asset project are managed by the same entity, thus achieving integration. Xu identified the BOT (Build/Operate/Transfer) and PPP (Public/Private Partnership) models as key mechanisms for realizing the ICO. Du Qirui and Cheng Du [21] analyzed the “investment-ICO” model used by Chinese enterprises in international markets with distinct business environments. They argued that this model involves a single enterprise participating in two or more phases—investment, construction, and operation—of a project. The implementation varies depending on the enterprise, project, and country, with no fixed universal model. It can involve top-down integration approaches, such as “investment + construction” or “investment + construction + operation”, or middle-outward approaches like “construction + investment”, “construction + operation”, or “construction + investment + operation” to achieve integration. Kong Fanxing [22], focusing on large sports stadium projects, proposed that the essence of the ICO lies in addressing the operational needs of the post-construction phase. This involves effectively managing the integrated flows of logistics, information, capital, and services within the supply chain during the production and construction of the venue. The existing literature has explored the conceptual dimensions of the ICO in large projects, focusing on processes, key stakeholders, and resource management. However, these studies have not systematically analyzed the roles, behaviors, and resource allocation dynamics of key actors across different phases of the project lifecycle in LIPs. Additionally, prior research lacks a dynamic perspective on research objectives, making it difficult to validate and adjust the attributes and models of the ICO. This limitation reduces the general applicability of theoretical insights and practical guidance.

2.2. Resource Orchestration Theory

In 1984, Wernerfelt introduced the Resource-Based View (RBV) of the firm [23], which posits that a firm can achieve and sustain long-term competitive advantage through resources that are valuable, rare, inimitable, and non-substitutable (VRIN). While this theory provides valuable insights into firms’ sustainable advantages and inter-firm differences, it overlooks the dynamic nature of the external environment. Building on this foundation, resource orchestration theory (ROT) emphasizes how firms can effectively manage and utilize resources in dynamic environments to achieve and maintain competitive advantage. A core principle of the ROT is resource mobilization, which involves integrating mobilized resources into a powerful system to enable improved coordination, orchestration, and direction toward specific objectives [24,25]. Simon [25,26] proposed a general sequential model of resource orchestration consisting of three key stages: (i) constructing a resource portfolio, (ii) bundling resources to build capabilities, and (iii) leveraging capabilities. Constructing involves acquiring, developing, or divesting resources; bundling refers to stabilizing, enriching, and expanding existing capabilities; and leveraging is the process of mobilizing, coordinating, and deploying resources to create competitive advantage. Building on this framework, Zhang and Hua [27] and Song [28] summarized the core processes of the ROT as resource combination, resource bundling, and resource leveraging. Resource combination involves acquiring, accumulating, and divesting resources to form a portfolio that lays the foundation for bundling and leveraging. Resource bundling refers to integrating resources to develop capabilities, which may include enhancing, enriching, or creating new capabilities that enable firms to capture market opportunities. Finally, resource leveraging involves deploying a firm’s capabilities through mobilization and coordination to create customer value and gain a competitive advantage.

Although resource orchestration theory provides a comprehensive framework for enterprise management in terms of resource and behavioral logic, the challenge of effective resource orchestration lies in identifying appropriate channels or mechanisms [29]. Integrating resources in a valuable way is not always straightforward, especially when existing activities and practices are deeply embedded in and supported by the organizational structure [30]. Firms encounter unique strengths and challenges at different stages of their lifecycle, which requires managers to adjust the coordination of internal resources and capabilities in various ways [25,31]. Specifically, differences in resource endowments, objectives, market strategies, and other characteristics can alter the relative importance of resource orchestration actions at different lifecycle stages. Managers must adopt a contingency approach, emphasizing resource orchestration behaviors tailored to the specific lifecycle stage of the firm or project.

2.3. ICO and Resource Integration in LIPs

LIPs are structured as various forms of temporary collaborative arrangements designed to achieve complex and highly customized objectives [32,33,34]. These projects are characterized by their temporary nature, with defined timeframes that include specific start and end dates [35], and their one-off nature, involving numerous non-routine and irregular tasks. In large-scale projects, each participant has their own goals and expectations, which are often implicit and, at times, even conflicting [36]. Given the differences and conflicts in goal expectations among stakeholders in LIPs, some scholars have analyzed key measures for achieving the ICO from a project lifecycle perspective. For example, Zhang Kaibin [37] argues that achieving interactive integration and complementarity between construction and operation requires adopting a project lifecycle mindset. Zhao Zhonghua [38] examines the availability objectives of highway projects and utilizes construction and maintenance data for information analysis and decision-making to achieve the integration of highway construction and maintenance. Hu Z. Z. et al. [39] highlight that the application of Building Information Modeling (BIM) throughout the entire project lifecycle facilitates efficient project management, optimization, and decision support, thereby enhancing project quality, efficiency, and sustainability. Song Kun [40] and Potkany M. et al. [41] focus on aligning the objectives of construction and operation throughout the project lifecycle, emphasizing that construction should be guided by operational demands to maximize the compromise and integration of stakeholder interests and the alignment of construction and operation goals, ultimately reducing both investment and operational costs. Chen Xiaoliang et al. [42] propose strengthening organizational coordination, improving technical capabilities, enhancing personnel training, reinforcing risk prevention, and implementing differentiated management to advance the application and development of integrated management in airport construction. Mi Lidong et al. [43] developed a digital platform centered on “production monitoring, tracking analysis, remote control, and decision support” to enable the full-process integration of safety construction and efficient operation in underground gas storage projects. Wang Xinglu et al. [44], based on the full lifecycle management concept of railway engineering, leveraged BIM technology to enhance the integration of construction and maintenance in high-speed railway projects.

In summary, the aforementioned studies explore effective measures to promote the ICO from a full project lifecycle perspective. However, given the differing characteristics of LIPs across various stages due to goal constraints and resource limitations, some scholars have focused on specific aspects within LIPs (e.g., information integration) or analyzed particular phases (such as the design or delivery stages). For instance, studies have examined how the use of information technology influences human resources and knowledge management [45,46,47], providing insights into resource combination strategies for LIPs. Others have addressed structural improvements in organizational collaboration by establishing temporary project organizations [48,49] or forming project teams that incorporate multiple stakeholders [50]. From a capability utilization perspective, scholars have explored the mechanisms through which LIPs create value, such as the Finnish government’s collaborative governance structure, which institutionalizes large interorganizational project delivery [51]. Moreover, given the distinct resource and goal attributes between construction and operation in LIPs, transitioning from construction to operation requires shifting from temporary, goal-oriented, and constantly evolving organizational forms to more permanent, standardized, and sustained structures [52]. To address this challenge, some studies have explored organizational design approaches to facilitate a smooth transition, despite the differences in construction intent and operational objectives. For example, Denicol et al. [53] examined the formation and evolution of organizational structures in large-scale projects, introducing the Project Systems Organization (PSO) conceptual framework to guide the design of large-scale project delivery models. Whyte et al. [52] focused on the transition from project completion to the start of operations, highlighting the importance of the temporal positioning of this transition. They argued that ensuring continuity is central to navigating the evolving organizational forms and temporal dynamics during this period. Similarly, Zerjav et al. [54] explored how organizations can test systems and ensure operational readiness, thereby facilitating a smooth transition from project construction to project owners and operators.

In conclusion, previous studies have examined the key influencing factors of the ICO in LIPs from the perspectives of resource utilization, resource allocation, and organizational design, providing a rich theoretical foundation for mitigating the negative effects of construction–operation separation. However, the existing literature either focuses solely on the impact of single factors on the ICO from a lifecycle perspective or limits its scope to specific stages of integration, leaving a gap in systematically exploring how LIPs orchestrate resources across the entire project lifecycle. Furthermore, there are very few in-depth studies dedicated to investigating the ICO in LIPs. Therefore, this study aims to systematically explore the integration logic within individual projects and how enterprises dynamically adjust across multiple projects to achieve the ICO, leveraging the theoretical framework of resource orchestration.

3. Research Design

3.1. Research Methodology

This study adopts a longitudinal single-case research method. The term “case” refers to a typical and representative instance observed in practice. A case demonstrates a problem, a task, or the evolution of an event. Through the analysis of such representative instances, insights and solutions can be proposed for addressing relevant issues [55]. Based on this definition, this study selects the ICO of Shanghai Airport as the research case. According to Yin, (2014) [56], this study examines the dynamic evolution and underlying mechanisms of the ICO in LIPs undertaken by Shanghai Airport Group over a 41-year period (1984–2024). Since this research aims to investigate the “How” questions related to processual phenomena, a single-case study approach is deemed highly appropriate. The characteristics of the ICO in LIPs differ substantially across various stages of enterprise development. Compared to multiple-case studies, the single-case approach is more appropriate for an in-depth exploration of the longitudinal evolution process. It focuses on the explanatory question of “why”, aiming to derive theories or principles that reveal complex phenomena by observing the interactions between time and context.

The data used in this research do not contain any personally identifiable information, nor do they involve sensitive personal data or commercial interests. In accordance with the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki, all participants provided informed consent prior to their involvement in the study. Furthermore, participant anonymity and confidentiality have been strictly ensured, and participation was entirely voluntary. And the study protocol was reviewed and approved by the Tongji University Scientific Ethics Committee.

3.2. Case Selection

Shanghai Airports (Group) Company Limited (hereinafter referred to as “Shanghai Airport Group” or “Shanghai Airports”) was established in May 1998 to oversee the operations of Pudong and Hongqiao international airports. Strategically located at the intersection of major air routes connecting Asia, Europe, and North America, these two airports serve the Yangtze River Delta region, which is not only China’s fastest-growing economic area but also the largest in terms of economic output and the most promising in terms of development potential. The two-hour flight radius of Shanghai Airports covers 93% of China’s GDP, 54% of its land resources, and 90% of its population, in addition to most parts of Japan and South Korea.

In 2009, Shanghai’s airports handled a total of 476,900 aircraft movements, 56.99 million passengers, and 2.98 million tons of cargo and mail. Pudong Airport maintained its position as the third-largest airport globally by cargo volume. Both airports have achieved remarkable milestones in safety, service efficiency, and infrastructure development. Hongqiao Airport celebrated its 22nd consecutive year of safe operations since its independent establishment, while Pudong Airport has maintained a perfect safety record since its opening. By 2019, Shanghai’s passenger and cargo throughput had reached 120 million passengers and 4.06 million tons, ranking fourth and third in the world, respectively. Despite the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, Shanghai Airports accounted for approximately one-third of China’s inbound and outbound flights and handled half of the country’s transport of anti-epidemic materials. In terms of financial performance, Shanghai Airport Group has consistently delivered strong returns since its listing in 1998. From 1998 to 2019, the company achieved an average return on equity (ROE) of 12.4%. Notably, it ranked first among China’s listed airports in terms of the ROE in 1998, 2004–2007, and 2017–2019.

The main reasons for selecting Shanghai Airport Group as the case study are as follows:

(i)

Shanghai Airport Group demonstrates both typicality and uniqueness in the ICO. Firstly, the construction of Pudong and Hongqiao Airports was managed by the Shanghai Airport Construction Command, while operations were handled by their respective airport companies, making this a typical LIP. Moreover, Shanghai Airport Group identified the issue of construction–operation separation as early as 1999 and pioneered the “operation-oriented construction” concept in 2005, positioning itself as an industry leader. Secondly, the Group has implemented several innovative practices to promote the ICO, such as “design review” and “operation-front-end comprehensive debugging”, which have provided valuable insights to the industry. Thirdly, Shanghai Airports has accumulated extensive experience through multiple expansion projects and has continuously applied the ICO principles. Lastly, the Group has achieved significant outcomes, exemplified by the Hongqiao T1 Expansion Project, which received the “United Nations Global Green Solutions Gold Award”.

(ii)

The case selection follows the principle of theoretical sampling [57], ensuring typicality and relevance. Shanghai Airports’ ICO practice has evolved through stages of “confusion, exploration, improvement, and perfection”. While navigating challenges through trial and error, the Group has consistently strengthened top-level design, embedding scientific management concepts, methodologies, and mechanisms into all stages of project construction. This has led to continuous optimization of costs and benefits, garnering widespread recognition and praise. Therefore, selecting Shanghai Airports as a case study provides an excellent example for investigating how LIPs can achieve systematic integration between construction and operation stakeholders.

(iii)

The feasibility of selecting Shanghai Airport Group as a case study is well justified. The research team has maintained long-term collaboration with Shanghai Airport Group since the commencement of Pudong Airport’s construction in 1997, allowing for a deep understanding of the Group’s ICO practices, including fundamental aspects and key events. In addition, the team conducted targeted research and interviews with Shanghai Airports, other stakeholder companies, and experts. The interviewees included employees at all levels—junior, mid-level, and senior management—as well as industry experts with rich theoretical and practical experience. This solid information base supports an in-depth exploration of the ICO evolution, the identification of critical issues and key stages in the process, and the refinement of theoretical innovations.

3.3. Data Collection and Analysis

3.3.1. Data Collection

This study primarily utilizes field survey research, with crawler technology serving as a supplementary tool, to achieve more efficient, integrated, and comprehensive data collection. Specifically, the data collected can be classified into the following three categories: (i) Semi-structured interviews. The research focuses on the ICO process of Shanghai Airport Group. Different sets of questions were designed for various stakeholders, including the Chief Engineer of Shanghai Airport Group, leaders and relevant departmental staff from the operational side, leaders and staff from the construction Command Department, and employees from both the construction and operational teams. During the research process, feedback from interviewees was gathered to facilitate internal team discussions. The materials obtained by team members were cross-referenced with the information provided by different interviewees. This approach enabled the identification of gaps in the research, led to continuous updates of the research questions, and ensured that the investigation remained aligned with the practical realities of the enterprise, while avoiding overly structured data content. (ii) Internal enterprise data. This category includes materials from the company’s website, archival resources (such as promotional videos, presentations, and internal publications), annual reports, corporate social responsibility reports, internal publications, and data collected through on-site observations. (ii) Data collection through internet channels. As a leader in the airport and air transportation service industry, Shanghai Airport Group has a wealth of relevant reports, news articles, academic materials, and industry yearbooks available online. Using Scrapy (v2.6.1), an open-source web crawling framework, secondary data were collected and organized based on keywords such as “Shanghai Airport”, “Hongqiao Airport”, “Pudong Airport”, and “ICO”.

The data sources are shown in

Table 1. Summary of data sources.

Data Source	Data Content
Primary Interview Data	Interviewee	Interview Topic	Interview Duration	Word Count
	Chief Engineer of Shanghai Airport Group	Evolution of ICO	6 h	20,000 words
	Leaders of the Command Department (2 people)	Experiences and practices in ICO	4 h	15,000 words
	Leaders of Pudong Airport Company (3 people)	Experiences and practices in ICO	4 h	12,000 words
	Leaders of Hongqiao Airport Company (3 people)	Experiences and practices in ICO	4 h	12,000 words
	Head of the ICO Department in the Command Unit	Work mechanisms	16 h	125,000 words
	Head of the ICO Department in Pudong Airport Company	Work mechanisms	4.5 h	42,000 words
	Engineering Management Departments of the Command Unit (e.g., Airfield and Terminal Engineering—7 people)	Practical operations in ICO	8 h	69,000 words
	Business Support Departments of the Command Unit (e.g., Design Management, Planning and Finance—7 people)	Practical operations in ICO	10 h	82,000 words
	Human Resources Department of the Command Unit (3 people)	Human resource allocation	6 h	45,000 words
	Human Resources Department of Pudong Airport Company (2 people)	Human resource allocation	3 h	28,000 words
	Human Resources Department of Hongqiao Airport Company (2 people)	Human resource allocation	1 h	12,000 words
	Human Resources Department of Shanghai Airport Group (3 people)	Human resource allocation	1.5 h	12,000 words
Participatory Observation	Multiple on-site visits to Shanghai Airport Group, including the Construction Command Unit, Pudong Airport Company, and Hongqiao Airport Company, to understand the planning, implementation, and outcomes of ICO in various expansion and renovation projects.
Secondary Data	Internal materials provided by management (e.g., meeting minutes, specialized reports, presentation slides, and summary documents).
	Publicly available resources related to the research topic obtained from Shanghai Airport Group’s official website, CNKI, and other open sources.
	Books, implementation plans, and other publications by Shanghai Airport Group regarding previous expansion and renovation projects.
	Reports, documents, and articles from authoritative media outlets such as People’s Daily and official organizational websites.

.

This study ensures the reliability and validity of the case research by carefully structuring the case analysis process, data collection, and data analysis. In terms of process design, two working groups were organized to conduct a preliminary walkthrough of the research process. This allowed for the identification of potential issues in the case analysis procedure and the development of a structured operational manual, minimizing biases introduced by external factors. Particularly during the coding process, a dedicated coding team was established, employing a “one-member-proposes, two-members-review” approach. Additionally, multiple rounds of verification and discussions were conducted with scholars specializing in the ICO to refine the coding framework. For data collection, semi-structured interviews were designed across multiple departments to gather cross-departmental and cross-disciplinary qualitative information. To ensure multi-perspective validation, at least two interviewees were selected from each department to facilitate a deeper understanding of corporate behavior, motivations, and contextual factors. Furthermore, internal corporate data and internet-sourced data were utilized to empirically support the qualitative findings derived from the interviews. The internet-sourced data not only provided a broader contextual perspective and industry trends but also compensated for the limitations of internal corporate data in analyzing external environmental factors. These measures collectively enhanced the reliability and validity of the research data.

3.3.2. Data Analysis

In the first stage, this study collected and organized data related to the ICO of Shanghai Airport Group. Irrelevant data were excluded, and the remaining information was systematically structured based on factors such as the timeline, project type, and key events to create the original dataset. Using the qualitative research tool Nvivo, the original data were analyzed by identifying timeline and keyword cues, which allowed for a deeper exploration of the structures and patterns within the written texts.

Subsequently, all large-scale cross-organizational projects (LIPs) of Shanghai Airport Group were categorized, and key events were organized according to the “design-construction-transfer” phases of the project lifecycle. This process resulted in three document sections corresponding to the synergy, integration, and fusion stages, which helped in forming a master category (as shown in

Table 2. Primary coding of case data.

Data Source	Data Type	Stages of ICO Evolution			Code
		Synergy Period	Integration Period	Fusion Period
Primary Interview Data	Real-Time Data	27	58	69	A1
Participatory Observation Data	Real-Time Data	0	0	17	B1
Secondary Data	Retrospective Data	16	25	32	C1

).

The second stage involves open coding. In this phase, this study identifies the drivers, key actions, and outcomes of the ICO in LIPs across various stages. Themes were then summarized from the original data of different sections to generate conceptual categories. The data were labeled, followed by initial simplification and refinement to form conceptualization.

The third stage is axial coding. Concepts related to the same phenomenon across different stages of the project lifecycle are grouped into a single category, leading to the identification of six core dimensions (as shown in

Table 3. Axial coding.

Main Period	Core Concept	Relationship Implications
Synergy Period	Resource Connection	Collaborate with industry-leading enterprises, research institutions, and experts to gain theoretical and practical experience in ICO, forming a network of innovative management collaborations.
	Resource Accumulation	Establish specialized teams and working groups for ICO, strengthening collaboration in personnel, technology, and cultural resources.
Integration Period	Resource Combination	Actively coordinate construction and operation teams to jointly formulate operation plans and schedules, promoting seamless integration in personnel, technology, and cultural dimensions.
	Resource Transformation	Leverage comprehensive teams, advanced construction technology, and operational concepts to drive innovation and integration in construction–operation practices.
Fusion Period	Resource Empowerment	Fully utilize human resources, digital technology, and cultural assets to create competitive advantages for the enterprise while providing reference and resource support for related industries.
	Resource Expansion	Utilize a complete organizational structure and refined process management mechanisms to expand ICO practices into other businesses or fields.

). The analysis framework of this study is based on the resource orchestration theory, specifically incorporating its key dimensions: resource structuring, resource bundling, and resource leveraging, along with its analytical procedures. This study applies this framework to examine the resource orchestration behaviors involved in the ICO of Shanghai Airport Group, ultimately developing a resource orchestration framework tailored to LIPs. Specifically, we build upon the insights of Wang Fengbin and Zhang Xue, (2022), who emphasized the importance of “enhancing the dynamism and phase-based approach of coding”. Accordingly, this study integrates different stages of the large interorganizational ICO with the resource orchestration theory, ensuring a systematic and dynamic analytical approach. For example, concepts such as “design review” and “BIM full-process integration” reflect Shanghai Airport Group’s approach to utilizing design experience and technological resources for resource expansion and empowerment. As a result, these concepts were categorized under “technological elements” and further consolidated into the core dimensions of “resource expansion” and “resource empowerment”.

To mitigate biases such as confirmation bias and personal subjectivity, a “one member proposes, two members review” approach was adopted. Specifically, when one team member proposed a coding viewpoint, the other two members offered either supportive or opposing opinions, and the viewpoints were supplemented or reinterpreted until consensus was reached.

4. Case Study

4.1. Case Overview

Between 1984 and 1996, Shanghai had only one airport—Hongqiao Airport, which underwent three rounds of expansion. These projects primarily focused on enlarging the existing Terminal 1 (T1) building and were led by the airport operator. In 1995, to prepare for the construction of Pudong Airport, the Pudong International Airport Construction Headquarters was established, marking the emergence of a dedicated construction entity. In 1997, the Shanghai Municipal Government founded Shanghai Airport Group Co., Ltd. to oversee the unified management of Hongqiao and Pudong Airports, with the goal of promoting their coordinated development. In October 1997, the first phase of Pudong Airport construction, centered around the development of Terminal 1 (T1), officially commenced and was completed in 1999. Unlike the Hongqiao T1 project, the Pudong Airport project was led by the construction entity.

As a result, construction activities before the year 2000 can be classified as the first phase of Shanghai Airport Group’s development, during which the demand for the ICO was not yet prominent. The primary focus at this stage was addressing “whether infrastructure existed” and “whether it met basic functional requirements”, rather than considering the ICO. Therefore, this period is referred to as the “Separation Phase” in the evolution of Shanghai Airport Group’s ICO.

Entering the 21st century, Shanghai Airport Group gradually realized that airport construction must align closely with operational demands to enhance construction quality and reduce operational costs. To address this need, the Group launched the second phase of Pudong Airport construction in 2005, which included the development of Terminal 2 (T2). During this period, Shanghai Airport Group became an industry pioneer by introducing the “operation-oriented” approach to airport construction. Following this, the Hongqiao Airport Expansion Project commenced in 2007, with a key focus on constructing Terminal 2 (T2). These projects were completed in 2008 and 2010, respectively.

During this phase, Shanghai Airport Group reinforced construction–operation collaboration, fostering stronger interdepartmental coordination. Both the construction and operational teams engaged in active managerial exploration, promoting the progress of the ICO. Consequently, this period is defined as the “Synergy Phase” of Shanghai Airport Group’s ICO.

In 2014, the expansion of Hongqiao T1 was launched, followed by the third phase of Pudong Airport’s expansion in December 2015. These projects were completed in 2018 and 2019, respectively. During this stage, Shanghai Airport Group further deepened its commitment to the ICO, explicitly proposing a “user-centered” approach.

This phase placed a stronger emphasis on close collaboration between construction and operation entities, ensuring that their cooperation spanned the entire project lifecycle—from planning and design to construction and handover. This integration became more comprehensive and systematic, with construction and operation teams working seamlessly together. Therefore, this period is referred to as the “Integration Phase” of Shanghai Airport Group’s ICO.

In 2022, the fourth phase of Pudong Airport’s expansion was launched, featuring the construction of Terminal 3 (T3), which is expected to be operational by 2027. By this time, Shanghai Airport Group had fully established a comprehensive ICO system, introducing the dual guiding principle of “construction driven by operation, and operation guided by construction”.

During this phase, the collaboration between construction and operation entities reached an unprecedented level of efficiency and seamlessness. Their partnership evolved into a mutually reinforcing and interdependent relationship, attaining comprehensive integration. This phase represents the peak of Shanghai Airport Group’s ICO evolution, establishing it as a benchmark for integrated airport management. Accordingly, this stage is designated as the “Fusion Phase” of Shanghai Airport Group’s ICO.

The evolution of the ICO at Shanghai Airport Group over several decades has been systematically examined, as shown in Figure 1.

4.2. Case Analysis

The development of the ICO concept at Shanghai Airport Group has undergone three significant stages: First, during the second phase of Pudong Airport’s expansion, the concept of “operation-oriented construction” was introduced, marking the beginning of Shanghai Airport Group’s conscious efforts to foster construction–operation synergy. Second, with the commencement of the Hongqiao Airport T1 Terminal Expansion Project, the concept of “end-user-oriented construction” was proposed, signifying a deeper level of integration between construction and operation. Third, the launch of the fourth phase of expansion of Pudong Airport introduced the systematic framework of “construction oriented to operation, and operation informed by construction”, reflecting the maturity of ICO practices.

To analyze the strategic adjustments in the ICO concept and the corresponding resource allocation practices, this paper follows the “motive-behavior-outcome” framework to examine the three key phases of Shanghai Airport Group’s ICO: the synergy period, the integration period, and the fusion period.

4.2.1. Synergy Period (2005–2013)

Before 2005, Shanghai Airport Group’s construction projects primarily aimed at “strengthening infrastructure and increasing passenger throughput”. By 2005, China’s total air transportation volume had risen to the second highest in the world, and private airlines were actively entering the market, driving significant improvements in industry efficiency. During this period, the “dual drivers of infrastructure and management” became the key to accelerating industry supply capacity. In this context, to overcome the constraints of terminal capacity on passenger flow efficiency and ground service quality, the second phase of Pudong Airport (the construction of the new T2 Terminal) and the expansion of Hongqiao Airport (the construction of the new T2 Terminal) commenced in December 2005 and April 2007, respectively. During the construction of these large-scale projects, Shanghai Airport Group adhered to the core principle of “operation-oriented construction”, laying the foundation for the early development of an integrated construction–operation model.

As shown in Figure 2, during the design phase, due to the large scale of the projects, the heavy workload, tight timelines, and the substantial coordination required to synchronize construction and operation, Shanghai Airport Group followed the principle of “establishing the model first, with construction support following”. This ensured that the construction direction aligned with the gradually clarified management model. To achieve this, Shanghai Airport Group collaborated with the Command Department, the Strategic Development Department, and the Safety Operation Monitoring Center to form specialized working groups. These groups focused on key operational model questions such as: “How to transition from a production-oriented enterprise to a management-oriented enterprise”, “How to build a specialized and socialized management mechanism”, and “How to improve operational efficiency, service quality, and safety assurance capabilities”. Additionally, expert consultants from various fields were invited to provide professional support for the design and development of the operations center’s management system. Throughout the design process, Shanghai Airport Group integrated key personnel from the operations departments and incorporated user feedback from the Group’s research to ensure a comprehensive understanding of user needs and functional requirements. To address discrepancies between design outcomes and original objectives or specifications, the Airport Construction Command innovatively established a “Design Review” working group. This group rigorously compared and reviewed design outcomes against the original goals and detailed requirements, ensuring that the final design was user-oriented and operationally feasible.

During the construction phase, the Command Department, based on the actual conditions of airport construction, proactively engaged in value engineering activities by utilizing both technical and economic approaches to ensure project functionality optimization and cost control. Throughout the construction process, the Command Department frequently organized site visits for operational staff, seeking their input on functionality and quality. At the same time, close coordination with the operations department ensured the development and implementation of safety measures, and a construction management model was developed that allowed for operations to continue without interruption. To adhere to user-oriented principles, the Command Department promptly involved the operations department in the installation and testing of equipment systems, ensuring that the project was fully prepared for a smooth handover and operational readiness.

In the handover phase, the “operation front-loading” principle was consistently applied, ensuring that operational requirements were incorporated from the design phase onward. Considering the phased nature and extended timeline of system installation and testing, operational staff had to balance their routine management duties with frequent visits to both the operational and construction sites. This dual engagement allowed them to gain a deeper understanding of system functions during installation and testing, providing a solid foundation for smooth operations. Moreover, the operations team effectively integrated subcontracted management of subsystems with the installation and testing of equipment. This early involvement of subcontracted management units ensured the timely formulation of operational management plans and the adequate preparation of personnel, thereby establishing a strong foundation for future operations.

By consistently applying the “operation-oriented” construction philosophy throughout the entire process, maximizing input from the operational side, and ensuring that the project met functional requirements, Shanghai Airports achieved remarkable outcomes in the practice of the ICO during the synergy period. In terms of the management model, the “integrated general contracting” approach led to the Pudong T2 Terminal becoming the first large-scale aviation hub project in China to be originally designed by a domestic entity, marking a significant leap forward in the country’s airport construction field. In project management, the Command Department inherited successful practices and introduced the concept of “progress driven by the plan”, ensuring systematic control over project quality, schedule, and safety. Through research and problem-solving, the Command Department tackled numerous technical challenges, facilitated the realization of Pudong Airport’s “multi-terminal, multi-runway” operational model, and successfully established a new operational management framework—“regionalized management + specialized support + OC platform”. Furthermore, Hongqiao Airport Company played a key role by fully participating in the acceptance inspection process, assisting in the strict control of project quality, and formulating precise plans for future operational management. This comprehensive approach ultimately ensured the successful delivery and efficient operation of the project.

4.2.2. Integration Period (2014–2018)

Despite comprehensive communication between the construction and operations teams during the design, construction, and handover phases of the projects in the synergy period, several issues arose during the operational phase post-project delivery. These included difficulties in maintaining equipment and facilities, as well as the need for demolition and reconstruction due to insufficient consideration of operational needs. This suggests that, although Shanghai Airport Group made significant strides in the ICO during the synergy period, there remained shortcomings in the depth and scope of implementation.

As public demand for safety, convenience, and quality in travel has grown, so too have expectations for airport construction in terms of cost, quality, efficiency, and environmental impact. In response, Shanghai Airport Group decided to expedite the renovation and expansion of infrastructure at both Shanghai airports. The Hongqiao Airport East Area Renovation Project and the Pudong Airport Phase III Expansion Project were launched on 20 December 2014 and 29 December 2015, respectively.

During this period, Shanghai Airport Group’s ICO practices were guided by the core concept of “end-user orientation”, which further evolved and elevated the earlier “operation orientation” approach. The primary objectives were to deepen construction–operation synergy, reduce resource waste, and enhance service quality. Similar to the synergy phase, this period also faced significant challenges, such as multiple project sites, tight timelines, and frequent overlaps in construction activities. These challenges were especially pronounced due to the high-density operations at both airports, making the successful completion of these large-scale projects a considerable challenge. As such, this phase can be seen as a further deepening and refinement of the ICO practices based on the synergy period, marking a critical “integration period” in the evolution of Shanghai Airport Group’s ICO.

As shown in Figure 3, the renovation of Hongqiao T1 Terminal was designed as a terminal complex, incorporating the synergistic integration of the transportation center and municipal supporting infrastructure. This design aimed to meet operational and passenger travel needs, while ensuring the smooth progress of construction and promoting the integrated development of regional transportation. The terminal adopted a lifecycle-based green design, balancing energy efficiency with comfort to achieve optimal comfort with minimal resource consumption. Shanghai Airport Group emphasized that green renovation should not only be reflected during the design phase but also be incorporated into operational management practices, ensuring the seamless integration of green technologies throughout the terminal’s operational lifecycle. In summary, the renovation design of Hongqiao T1 Terminal fully considered the operational characteristics of the terminal, ensuring that the technologies implemented during the design phase were effectively applied during operation and establishing operational management measures to guarantee the successful implementation of green technologies. Ultimately, this approach achieved low-carbon, cost-efficient operations.

During the construction phase, the Hongqiao T1 Terminal adopted a non-stop construction plan, dividing the renovation project into two phases. In the first phase, Building A was renovated while Building B accommodated both domestic and international flight operations. In the second phase, Building B was renovated, with international flights relocated to Building A and temporary domestic flight functions also provided there. The phased construction process ensured uninterrupted operations and smooth progress. Shanghai Airport Group introduced the principle of “operation creating conditions for construction, and construction ensuring operation”, establishing a collaborative management system involving the constructor, contractor, designer, and operator. This system ensured the safety of air defense, operational processes, pipeline management, and construction safety. Similarly, the underpass construction project at Pudong Airport’s flight zone was also carried out in phases, adhering to the principle of “occupy one, return one”, to ensure non-stop construction while maintaining stringent quality and safety controls. In terms of scheduling, Shanghai Airport Group adopted an integrated progress plan, coordinating the efforts of all parties to synchronize construction work with operational preparations.

During the handover phase, the Pudong Airport Phase III Expansion Project adopted a digital handover platform. By integrating Building Information Modeling (BIM) technology, the platform recorded equipment installations, operational parameters, and maintenance information, ensuring a transparent and efficient handover process while providing a solid foundation for future maintenance and management. Additionally, the Command Department implemented a real-time monitoring system, utilizing high-definition cameras and digital image recognition technology for comprehensive airport surveillance. This system enabled rapid responses to abnormal situations, ensuring the safety and smooth operation of all airport areas.

Following the integration phase, the Hongqiao T1 renovation project successfully preserved the historical architectural character of the terminal while reducing overall building energy consumption by more than 20%. This achievement earned the project the “United Nations Global Green Solutions—Gold Award for Green Retrofit Solutions for Existing Buildings”. With the integration of intelligent systems, Hongqiao T1 became China’s first fully self-service terminal. The Pudong Airport Phase III Expansion Project resulted in the construction of the world’s largest single satellite terminal. Additionally, it introduced the innovative “steel rail and steel wheel” system for its MRT system, overcoming technical monopolies and pioneering a new approach to MRT system construction. This innovation also led to the development of the industry standard, “Construction Guidelines for Airport Airside Passenger MRT System Projects”.

4.2.3. Integration Period (2019–Present)

After 14 years of continuous exploration and improvement, Shanghai Airport Group has progressively refined an integrated construction–operation (ICO) management system tailored to its specific needs. However, under the Shanghai 2035 Plan, Pudong Airport is positioned as a globally significant aviation hub, and enhancing its international competitiveness is crucial for Shanghai’s goal of becoming a world-class city. By 2019, Pudong Airport’s annual passenger throughput surpassed 76.14 million, nearing the design capacity limits of Terminals T1, T2, and the satellite hall. To address the rapidly growing passenger traffic and increasing service demands, Shanghai Airport Group officially launched the Phase IV Expansion Project, one of its most important initiatives. The project includes key facilities such as Terminal T3, a transportation center, and airside aprons and is scheduled for completion and operational use by 2027.

Compared to previous phases, the Phase IV Expansion Project is larger in scope, faces more complex challenges, involves more detailed technical and construction processes, and requires higher levels of synergy. As the largest and most heavily invested single project in the history of Shanghai Airport Group (with an investment exceeding RMB 80 billion), the Phase IV Expansion is not only a cluster of projects involving multiple construction entities but also a multi-functional transportation hub that integrates terminals, rail transportation, airport roads, and other facilities.

Moreover, the construction process of the Phase IV Project is marked by complex scheduling and overlapping tasks across different sections, necessitating meticulous coordination and efficient project management. This is particularly evident in the integration of existing terminal areas with newly constructed sections, where the requirement for uninterrupted flight operations and continuous transportation services is highly stringent, and safety is of utmost importance. The project also requires flexibility to accommodate evolving demands from operators and other stakeholders. During the design and construction phases, Shanghai Airport Group proactively incorporated emerging needs, such as online ride-hailing services, ensuring that the project is adaptable to future operational scenarios. The level of integration achieved in the Phase IV Expansion Project not only builds upon prior experience but also enhances the depth of collaboration and the capacity for resource integration.

At this stage, Shanghai Airport Group has further advanced its integrated management philosophy of “construction oriented to operation, operation based on construction”, with particular emphasis on the systematic coordination and resource allocation at the project’s initiation. Therefore, the Phase IV Expansion represents the maturation of Shanghai Airport Group’s ICO management system. Building on the lessons learned from the synergy and integration phases, the Phase IV Project has significantly improved resource deployment, cross-departmental coordination, and the ICO, providing valuable practical insights and innovative models for the future development of aviation hubs.

As shown in Figure 4, during the design phase, Shanghai Airport Group implemented an integrated management approach for the design work, with the design management department of the constructor at the core. Initially, the operational requirements of China Eastern Airlines, the primary operator of Pudong T3 Terminal, were collected and analyzed, particularly focusing on the critical operational needs under the dual-terminal operation model. Subsequently, over 200 suggestions were gathered through the operator’s dedicated “Phase IV Office”, followed by multiple rounds of feedback and revisions to ensure that the design was closely aligned with operational needs. Shanghai Airport Group facilitated collaboration among design units to ensure seamless coordination across disciplines and between design institutes, thus improving the overall design quality. The management of information flow related to design changes was effectively integrated, ensuring smooth communication between project teams and across specialties. In addition to cross-organizational and information management, Shanghai Airport Group proactively identified and addressed major technical risks during the design phase. This included assessing the feasibility of operational contingency models to ensure effective risk control, engaging external design consulting firms for professional support, and initiating systematic research on emerging challenges. Simultaneously, construction planning was advanced to ensure that every phase was meticulously prepared, minimizing subsequent changes and ensuring a seamless integration of design and construction. Furthermore, to address the dynamic coordination and controllability of the project, Shanghai Airport Group compiled the “Construction Management Outline for the Pudong International Airport Phase IV Expansion Project”. This document was continuously optimized as the project progressed, ensuring that all tasks—ranging from party building to smart airport construction—were executed within a unified and coordinated framework.

During the construction phase, to enhance collaboration between the constructor and the operator, Shanghai Airport Group adopted a comprehensive strategy focused on three key areas: personnel deployment, organizational structure, and schedule management. First, Shanghai Airport Group proposed a project-based staffing model. Under this model, personnel from both the operator and the constructor formed joint working groups, while maintaining their original organizational affiliations. During project execution, members of the working groups collaborated closely, sharing information and resources to efficiently advance project tasks. To ensure fair evaluation and incentivization of contributions during collaborative work, Shanghai Airports introduced a project-based performance appraisal system. Second, Shanghai Airport Group established a four-tier integrated management system for construction and operation, encompassing the group level, joint coordination level, departmental level, and professional level. This hierarchical decision-making mechanism allowed each level to make decisions within its area of expertise, enhancing the precision and scientific rigor of decision-making. Moreover, Shanghai Airport Group implemented a bottom-up mechanism for the rapid resolution of conflicts and a top-down mechanism to oversee and enforce decisions, ensuring efficient coordination among all stakeholders throughout the project. Finally, in terms of schedule management, Shanghai Airport Group ensured seamless alignment between the construction and operation schedules. By defining key milestones, annual targets, and responsible units, progress objectives were integrated into a unified framework. Under this master schedule, both the constructor and the operator developed secondary plans tailored to their respective tasks, supported by a dedicated review mechanism to ensure high-quality integration and implementation. This approach facilitated the successful completion of tasks at each stage of the project.

During the handover phase, Shanghai Airport Group explored a standardized handover process based on Building Information Modeling (BIM) technology. The use of IoT platforms and RFID systems significantly enhanced the efficiency of equipment inventory management, while pre-aligning operational management lists reduced management costs and improved data flow efficiency. BIM technology integrated and visualized data across the entire project lifecycle—from design to construction—ensuring smooth data handover and providing robust support for subsequent operational management.

Leveraging a systematic integrated construction and operation management approach, Shanghai Airport Group achieved remarkable results across multiple areas. The Integrated Operations Center (IOC) for the Phase IV Expansion Project at Pudong Airport employed a management model of “regionalized management, specialized support, and integrated operation”. This approach effectively covered both routine operations and emergency response scenarios, ensuring the safety and efficiency of five key business processes, including aircraft operations, passenger handling, baggage management, cargo handling, and land transportation. Additionally, throughout the construction process, the standardization of electromechanical design was rigorously implemented. This included the establishment of 112 design standards for water, electricity, heating, and other systems, as well as standardized design and construction for over 400 equipment rooms in Terminal T3. These measures ensured the systematic integration of operational requirements at the design stage, proactively addressing operational needs in an efficient manner.

5. Research Findings

In Section 4, this study adopts a longitudinal single-case analysis method, using Shanghai Airport Group’s LIPs as the research subject. This study systematically traces the evolution of the ICO in LIPs from 2005 to 2024. By systematically examining key practices that have facilitated the ICO across different stages of the “Design-Construction-Handover” lifecycle, this study clarifies the resource allocation process within Shanghai Airport Group’s ICO efforts.

Furthermore, this study distills the characteristics of the different evolutionary stages of the ICO. Relying on the resource orchestration framework, it abstracts the resource orchestration behaviors and outcomes observed throughout the integration process of LIPs. This approach uncovers the dynamic mechanism of resource orchestration, providing theoretical insights for the ICO of both enterprises and large-scale cross-organizational projects more broadly, as illustrated in Figure 5.

During the synergy period, large-scale cross-organizational projects (LIPs) lacked a solid theoretical and practical foundation for promoting the integration of construction and operation (ICO). The connection between the progress plans of the constructor and the operational plans of the operator remained weak. As a result, both parties independently formulated their respective plans, maintaining flexibility based on their professional expertise. Consequently, during this phase, the constructor and the operator independently accumulated and connected resources. However, at different stages of LIPs, driven by varying professional requirements, the constructor and the operator take the lead in resource accumulation and connection. These efforts focus on personnel, technology, and culture and are organized through the establishment of specialized teams or task groups that align with the project’s three key phases: design, construction, and handover. In terms of human resources, both parties allocate personnel through borrowing or redeployment mechanisms. For instance, operational staff may be involved throughout the design, construction, and handover phases, while experienced personnel from mature projects may be seconded to provide expertise and support for the operation of new projects. In terms of technical resources, significant barriers exist in communication channels and integration mechanisms between construction and operation. These challenges make it difficult for the constructor to fully absorb operational requirements. Moreover, technological innovations face long cycles, high costs, and considerable uncertainties, which pose substantial risks during the exploratory phase of the ICO. Therefore, the most effective approach to achieving both operational and construction goals is to improve and optimize technology based on prior project experience and operational needs. In terms of cultural resources, Shanghai Airport Group leverages the political, organizational, and ideological advantages of its party organizations at all levels. This support contributes valuable insights and strengthens the project’s foundation for success.

During the integration phase, the constructor and operator of large-scale cross-organizational projects (LIPs) summarized a wealth of experience and lessons learned from the ICO process through communication and collaboration. Their understanding of the ICO deepened as they engaged in practical operations. As a result, both parties actively collaborated in developing operational plans and schedules, enhancing the integration between the construction and operation phases through resource combination and transformation. In contrast to the synergy phase, the organizational structure during the integration phase is no longer characterized by relatively loose, independent parties working in separate stages. Instead, roles and responsibilities are divided according to the specific requirements of the project lifecycle. For instance, during the construction phase involving non-stop flight operations, it is necessary to comprehensively consider factors such as flight schedules, building structure, and electromechanical and low-voltage systems. Airport operators and airlines must overcome constraints in resources such as ticketing counters, security checkpoints, boarding gates, and baggage claim areas during renovation. The construction team must develop a phased implementation plan that takes into account the current building conditions and the renovation design. At this stage, construction and operation phases overlap closely, with high levels of collaboration across all areas. Although the borrowing and redeployment of personnel can strengthen communication between the constructor and operator, the inherent differences in expertise between the two parties often lead to misunderstandings. Therefore, joint training is crucial to create a team that can express operational needs in construction terminology while also understanding construction operations from the operator’s perspective. This approach ensures smoother transitions and better coordination between construction and operation. Additionally, the application of innovative technologies plays a critical role in achieving a win-win outcome for both construction and operation. For example, during Phase III of the Pudong Airport project, the introduction of the “steel rail and steel wheel” urban subway system for the airport’s rapid transit system not only reduced construction and operational costs but also paved the way for new developments in large-scale hub airports. In terms of cultural resources, party-building initiatives serve as a solid foundation for establishing a comprehensive, multi-layered communication mechanism. Through regular joint meetings, thematic workshops, and other activities, challenges, pain points, and optimization strategies for integrated construction–operation governance are discussed and addressed.

During the fusion phase, construction and operation organizations successfully addressed communication barriers, clarified cooperation mechanisms, and gradually reduced the separation between construction and operation across various project stages. In this process, both parties actively promote resource expansion and empowerment to further advance integration. First, the progress and operational plans are comprehensively integrated, mutually monitored, and collaboratively promoted, which improves the efficiency of both progress management and operational management. Second, building on phase-based and division-driven approaches, a four-tier organizational integration structure has been established: the group level, joint leadership team, joint working group, and specialized teams. This structure enables two-way empowerment through the ICO. In terms of human resources, the integration of project-based human resources allows personnel from both construction and operation teams to collaborate within joint working groups. While the organizational affiliations of personnel remain unchanged, collaboration occurs at the project level, forming a flexible staffing structure that is tightly integrated within the project while remaining adaptable outside it. In terms of technical integration, industry experts are involved throughout the entire process, from bidding to program modification and evaluation. This involvement facilitates forward-looking and systematic analysis of project implementation. Additionally, the application of digital technologies allows for the identification and analysis of customer needs, as well as feedback on the use of existing facilities and equipment, enabling real-time updates to operational requirements. In terms of cultural integration, the integration process is systematically empowered through party-building initiatives, which fully leverage the proactive initiative of outstanding party members, thereby enhancing the overall ICO.

6. Conclusions

This study, grounded in the resource orchestration theory, explores the dynamic evolution of the ICO in LIPs.

6.1. Theoretical Contributions

From a theoretical perspective, this study reveals that LIPs are characterized by long construction cycles, numerous tasks, and tight schedules. Achieving a comprehensive and seamless integration between construction and operation requires the identification and establishment of key resources in human capital, technology, and organizational culture. Moreover, through planning alignment and organizational coordination mechanisms, these resources can be effectively linked, transformed, and expanded to facilitate seamless integration. This study identifies three distinct stages in the ICO process within LIPs:

Synergy Phase: During this stage, construction and operation teams maintain a loosely coupled relationship. The focus is on collaborative efforts and resource complementarity, ensuring that the initial project objectives are met efficiently.

Integration Phase: At this stage, the synergy between construction and operation entities strengthens, and the alignment of planning and organizational structures becomes crucial for project execution. The enhanced coordination mechanisms facilitate a more structured and systematic integration process.

Fusion Phase: In the final stage, resource integration and institutional innovation lead to a fully embedded and deeply integrated construction–operation model. With the support of digital technologies, the efficiency and controllability of the ICO are significantly enhanced.

6.2. Practical Implications

Using Shanghai Airport Group as a case study, this research provides insights into the key challenges and corresponding strategies for achieving the ICO in LIPs.

(i)

Strengthening Information Transmission and Communication Mechanisms

A real-time information-sharing platform is essential for effective integration. Establishing such a platform enhances interdepartmental and cross-level collaboration, ensuring the efficient realization of project objectives.

Moreover, a well-structured communication system improves information transparency and timeliness, supports data-driven decision-making, and enhances problem-solving efficiency and implementation effectiveness. By integrating personnel, technology, and resources, LIPs can optimize communication mechanisms, thereby fostering multi-level collaboration and structured information exchange. These efforts ultimately contribute to the development of a closed-loop management system, ensuring effective project execution and long-term sustainability.

(ii)

The Critical Role of Innovation in ICO

Innovation serves as a key enabler in the successful implementation of the ICO in LIPs. This study identifies four dimensions of innovation that facilitate this integration:

Human Resource Innovation: Transitioning from temporary secondments to joint talent development and ultimately to fully integrated human resource management enhances employee expertise and organizational stability, providing a solid foundation for integration.

Technological Innovation: The adoption of advanced digital technologies enables LIPs to reduce costs, improve operational efficiency, and enhance corporate reputation.

Institutional Innovation: Flexible planning and adaptive organizational structures allow enterprises to optimize resource allocation strategies across different project stages, ensuring greater agility in responding to operational needs.

Cultural Innovation: enhancing corporate governance and organizational culture strengthens team cohesion and facilitates interdepartmental resource sharing, promoting a collaborative and integrated operational framework.

6.3. Limitations and Future Research Directions

While this study develops a systematic theoretical framework and practical approach for the ICO in LIPs, several limitations should be acknowledged:

(i)

Generality of Findings

This study is based on a single case study—Shanghai Airport Group—that, while representative, may not fully capture the diverse management requirements and challenges faced by LIPs across different industries and project types. Future research should conduct comparative case studies or empirical analyses to validate and generalize the findings across broader contexts.

(ii)

Theoretical Scope of Resource Orchestration

While the resource orchestration theory provides a robust framework for understanding the evolutionary path of the ICO, in highly complex project environments, additional theoretical perspectives—such as game theory and network theory—may be required to fully explain the dynamic interactions between construction and operation entities. Future studies should explore the integration of multiple theoretical frameworks to offer a more comprehensive understanding of construction–operation interdependencies in large-scale infrastructure projects.