Effect of Photovoltaic Energy-Saving Window Factors on Building Heating Load Under Three Control Modes
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Methodology
2.1. Window Design and Mathematical Model
2.1.1. Window Structure and Three Control Modes
2.1.2. Mathematical Model
2.2. In Situ Test Setup and Energy-Saving Effect Confirmation
2.2.1. In Situ Test Setup
2.2.2. Confirmation of the Window Energy-Saving Effect
2.3. Numerical Experiment Setup and Model Validation
2.3.1. Numerical Experiment Setup
2.3.2. Model Validation
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Correlation Analysis of Key Factors Influencing Building Heating Load
3.2. Effect of Key Factor Configurations on Building Heating Load
3.2.1. Comparison Within Control Modes
3.2.2. Comparison Between Control Modes
4. Conclusions
- (1)
- The degree of correlation between key factors and heating load is influenced by the control mode. When the PV glazing is not controlled and remains closed, transmittance is the most critical factor. However, in control mode 2, where PV glazing is controlled, the number of clear glazing layers proves to be the most influential factor on heating load.
- (2)
- Configurations under control modes 1 and 3 have a relatively greater impact on heating load, with reductions from the highest to the lowest heating load of 34.62% and 39.60%, respectively. In contrast, the reduction is smaller in control mode 2, with a decrease of 17.93% from the highest to the lowest heating load. This suggests that an appropriate control mode can reduce heating load differences caused by configuration variations.
- (3)
- Among the three control modes for PV energy-saving window, control mode 2 proves to be the most optimal. Even under the optimal configuration, the heating load in control mode 2 is reduced by 16.56% compared to control mode 1. These results confirm that position-controlled operation of the PV glazing is a viable approach for reducing heating load.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
Abbreviation | |
PV | photovoltaic |
DSF | double-skin façade |
SHGC | solar heat gain coefficient |
BIPV | building-integrated photovoltaic |
EPS | expanded polystyrene |
CdTe | Cadmium Telluride |
ECMWF | European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts |
MAPE | Mean Absolute Percentage Error |
RMSE | Root Mean Square Error |
TMY | typical meteorological year |
NVDPV | natural ventilated double photovoltaic |
Symbol | |
T | temperature [K] |
τ | time |
ρ | density [kg/m3] |
C | specific heat capacity [J/(kg·K)] |
λ | thermal conductivity [W/(m·K)] |
heat generation from the internal heat source [W/m3] | |
h | heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2·K)] |
ε | emissivity |
σ | Stefan–Boltzmann constant, 5.67 × 10−8 [W/(m2·K4)] |
μ | dynamic viscosity [Pa·s] |
A | the area [m2] |
X | angle factor |
D | thickness [m] |
k | thermal conductivity [W/(m·K)] |
I | solar radiation [W/m2] |
ξ | absorbance |
U | effective heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2·K)] |
δ | PV coverage ratio |
V | wind speed [m/s] |
Q | heating load [kW·h] |
Subscript | |
f | air temperature |
s | surface temperature |
sur | environmental surface temperature |
po | outer part glass of PV glazing |
pi | inner part glass of PV glazing |
pc | photovoltaic cells of PV glazing |
c | convection heat transfer |
r | radiative heat transfer |
gnd | ground surface temperature |
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Material | Density [kg/m3] | Thermal Conductivity [W/(m·K)] | Specific Heat [J/(kg·K)] |
---|---|---|---|
Brick | 1800 | 0.810 | 1050 |
EPS | 20 | 0.039 | 1380 |
Glass | 2500 | 1.000 | 840 |
Parameters | Data |
---|---|
External layer: Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) PV glazing | |
Glazing type | Single-pane |
Visible transmittance | 20% |
Thickness | 7 mm |
Maximum power | 73.84 W |
Voltage at the maximum power point (Vmp) | 86.37 V |
Current at the maximum power point (Imp) | 0.85 A |
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) | 116.00 V |
Short Circuit Current (Isc) | 0.97 A |
Temperature coefficient | −0.214%/°C |
Efficiency | 10.25% |
Air cavity between PV glazing and shutter | |
Thickness | 270 mm |
Middle layer: insulated shutter | |
Material | Polyurethane foam |
Conductivity | 0.024 [W/(m·K)] |
Thickness | 5 mm |
Air cavity between clear glazing and shutter | |
Thickness | 100 mm |
Internal layer: clear glazing | |
Glazing type | Double-pane |
Thickness | 24 mm |
Frame | plastic steel window frame |
Window system frame | Wooden |
Level | Factor A | Factor B [%] | Factor C [m] | Factor D |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Single-pane | 10 | 0.005 | Single-pane |
2 | Double-pane | 20 | 0.025 | Double-pane |
3 | 40 | 0.045 | Triple-pane |
Test Number | Factor A | Factor B | Factor C | Factor D | Heating Load of Control Mode 1 [kW·h] | Heating Load of Control Mode 2 [kW·h] | Heating Load of Control Mode 3 [kW·h] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1462.62 | 972.18 | 1591.37 |
2 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 1178.88 | 819.58 | 1375.12 |
3 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 980.13 | 816.13 | 1146.05 |
4 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 1197.52 | 811.07 | 1250.79 |
5 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1186.08 | 869.94 | 1198.07 |
6 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 988.07 | 821.88 | 997.26 |
7 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1273.34 | 836.95 | 1487.61 |
8 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 1173.38 | 843.52 | 1387.05 |
9 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 1 | 1097.00 | 886.53 | 1194.69 |
10 (Optimal level) | 2 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 956.21 | 797.83 | 961.173 |
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Li, J.; Wu, J.; Xu, H. Effect of Photovoltaic Energy-Saving Window Factors on Building Heating Load Under Three Control Modes. Buildings 2025, 15, 238. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15020238
Li J, Wu J, Xu H. Effect of Photovoltaic Energy-Saving Window Factors on Building Heating Load Under Three Control Modes. Buildings. 2025; 15(2):238. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15020238
Chicago/Turabian StyleLi, Jiayi, Jianmei Wu, and Hongpeng Xu. 2025. "Effect of Photovoltaic Energy-Saving Window Factors on Building Heating Load Under Three Control Modes" Buildings 15, no. 2: 238. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15020238
APA StyleLi, J., Wu, J., & Xu, H. (2025). Effect of Photovoltaic Energy-Saving Window Factors on Building Heating Load Under Three Control Modes. Buildings, 15(2), 238. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15020238