Timber Architecture for Sustainable Futures: A Critical Review of Design and Research Challenges in the Era of Environmental and Social Transition

Abstract

This article provides a critical review of the current design and research challenges in contemporary timber architecture. Conducted from the perspective of a designer-researcher, the review focuses on the role of wood as a material at the intersection of environmental performance, cultural meaning, and spatial practice. The study adopts a conceptual, problem-oriented approach, eschewing the conventional systematic aggregation of existing data. The objective of this study is to identify, interpret and categorise the key issues that are shaping the evolving discourse on timber architecture. The analysis is based on peer-reviewed literature published between 2020 and 2025, sourced from the Scopus and Web of Science Core Collection databases. Fifteen thematic challenges have been identified and classified according to their recognition level in academic and design contexts. The subjects under discussion include well-established topics, such as life cycle assessment and carbon storage, as well as less commonly explored areas, such as symbolic durability, social acceptance, traceability, and the upcycling of low-grade wood. The review under consideration places significant emphasis on the importance of integrating technical, cultural, and perceptual dimensions when evaluating timber architecture. The article proposes an interpretive framework combining design thinking and transdisciplinary insights. This framework aims to bridge disciplinary gaps and provide a coherent structure for understanding the complexity of timber-related challenges. The framework under discussion here encourages a broader understanding of wood as not only a sustainable building material but also a vehicle for systemic transformation in architectural culture and practice. The study’s insights may support designers, educators, and policymakers in identifying strategic priorities for the development of future-proof timber-based design practices.

1. Introduction

The utilisation of wood as a construction material plays a pivotal role in the ongoing transformation of sustainable architecture, thereby addressing both environmental and cultural challenges. The low carbon footprint of the subject, its ability to sequester carbon dioxide, and its status as a renewable resource position it as a key component in the decarbonisation of the building sector [1,2,3]. In contradistinction to high-emission materials such as steel or concrete, wood can function as an active element in climate strategies, not only by reducing emissions during the production phase but also by enabling long-term carbon storage within architectural structures. In contemporary design practices, environmental objectives are being integrated with the formal and narrative potential of wood, a material with deep roots in tradition but also open to innovative applications.

As the necessity to develop the built environment in accordance with climate and social objectives grows, wood is re-emerging as a cornerstone of innovative architectural practices, serving both as a structural material and as a carrier of cultural and aesthetic values. The focus of novel design strategies is twofold: firstly, to create architecture that meets environmental standards, and secondly, to contribute to the formation of local cultural identity and support users in achieving a sense of well-being. The material quality of wood, in terms of its tactile and sensory properties, as well as its capacity to convey narrative, serves as a medium for both utilitarian value and symbolic meaning. Its role is increasingly recognised as extending beyond conventional engineering frameworks. This positions it as a key element in shaping a more human-centred and environmentally conscious built environment [4,5].

It is evident from a comprehensive review of the extant literature that the potential of wood extends beyond its physical properties. Contemporary design approaches are also influenced by the social perception of wood as a modern material, particularly in the context of public spaces and architectural education. Concurrently, societal expectations and cultural values associated with space are undergoing a process of evolution. In this context, wood fulfils not only a technological role but also a symbolic function. In the context of the climate crisis and geopolitical tensions, the inherent natural and renewable characteristics of wood are imbued with an added ethical dimension [5,6]. Local and cultural narratives are becoming increasingly integral to research on the durability of wooden architecture. This is because they address not only the physical longevity of the structures concerned, but also their symbolic resilience [7].

The increasing interest in adaptable and transformative design has also contributed to the development of circular methods such as Design for Disassembly (DfD), Design for Adaptability (DfA), and the digital identification of structural components. The aforementioned strategies are in alignment with the overarching paradigm of the circular economy. Moreover, these strategies are of particular pertinence in the context of timber architecture, wherein the prefabricated and modular nature of the material in question fosters material reuse and the reduction of waste [8,9,10,11]. Digital technologies, including parametric form generation, structural optimisation, and digital twin systems, are becoming essential tools in the rationalisation and modernisation of timber architecture design processes [12,13].

Notwithstanding considerable advances, a plethora of significant subjects persist in their state of under-exploration. The following factors must be considered when analysing the influence of certification systems (e.g., FSC and PEFC) on design decisions: the symbolic durability of wood as a cultural medium; the social acceptance of timber buildings in public spaces; and the potential for upcycling low-grade wood into high-quality architecture [14,15]. Furthermore, an increasing awareness of the necessity for an interdisciplinary approach to the subject has been noted, integrating engineering, design, social and cultural knowledge.

This article presents a critical review of the current challenges and research directions in the field of timber architecture. These have been developed from the perspective of an architect-researcher engaged in both professional design practice and academic inquiry. Rather than adhering to a systematic review format, the study employs a conceptual and problem-oriented approach with the objective of identifying tensions, knowledge gaps, and emerging themes within the discourse on wood as it relates to architecture. The contribution of this work lies in the integrative classification framework, which bridges technical, cultural, and systemic perspectives that are often treated separately in previous literature. The analysis addresses not only well-established topics but also those that are moderately or insufficiently explored, yet remain essential to the future of sustainable design.

The present review draws on literature published between 2020 and 2025, selected from the Scopus and Web of Science databases. The sources under consideration herein intersect architectural design with environmental, technological and cultural issues. Fifteen challenges have been identified and grouped into three levels of recognition: well-established, moderately explored, and insufficiently studied. This classification is indicative of the visibility of each topic in academic and professional discussions, the maturity of the research methods applied, and their practical relevance for sustainable architectural practice. The article’s objective is twofold: firstly, to broaden the reader’s understanding of timber, extending its recognition from an ecological construction material to a medium for design, and secondly, to explore the symbolic, spatial and cultural dimensions of timber as a design medium. This standpoint facilitates the delineation of prospective avenues for interdisciplinary research at the nexus of architecture, engineering, sociology and environmental science. The outcomes of this study may assist architects, researchers, and policymakers in identifying strategic opportunities for sustainable interventions and shaping long-term directions in timber-based architectural design.

2. Materials and Methods

This article presents a critical review of selected research challenges related to the design of timber architecture in the context of environmental and cultural transformation. The review explores the extent to which these challenges have been recognised, highlighting variations in their perception and consideration. In contradistinction to conventional systematic reviews, this study adopts the perspective of a researcher-architect and focuses on identifying challenges of architectural, spatial, and symbolic significance. The material under consideration is not regarded exclusively as a structural material or an indicator of environmental performance; rather, it is considered as a carrier of spatial, social and aesthetic meaning. This approach encompasses the full scope of architectural inquiry.

2.1. Research Approach

The present article adheres to the methodological structure of a conceptual review, the purpose of which is to explore knowledge gaps and underexamined design themes in the field of timber architecture. The methodological approach that has been applied can be described as a problem-oriented conceptual review. This is a characteristic of architectural research. In contradistinction to linear literature surveys, this methodology treats literature not as a direct data source, but as a space in which specific tensions, knowledge gaps and discontinuities in design understanding emerge. The starting point is the perspective of the designer, who seeks research-based support for spatial and material decisions, particularly in relation to environmental, cultural, and social conditions.

Empirical data was not collected for this article; its objective is not to report field research but to offer a conceptual interpretation of design challenges grounded in literature and supported by selected case illustrations.

2.2. Scope of Sources and Material Base

The present review is grounded in scientific literature published between 2020 and 2025, indexed in the Scopus and Web of Science Core Collection databases. The selection of publications was constrained to those that were available in English and had undergone the peer-review process. The selection of sources was made following an iterative process, incorporating combinations of keywords that reflect both material and technological aspects (e.g., “timber architecture”, “CLT”, “prefabrication”) as well as spatial, cultural, and social dimensions (e.g., “perception”, “cultural value”, “design challenges”, “temporary structures”, “aesthetics of wood”).

Priority was given to articles that:

• It is imperative that design or spatial challenges be articulated, whether directly or indirectly.
• The following elements must be given due consideration: actual design strategies, typologies, architectural detailing and social conditions.
• It is imperative to emphasise the necessity of integrating the designer’s viewpoint with technological, environmental, or social analyses.
• It is imperative to demonstrate transdisciplinary potential.

The exclusion criterion applied to purely technical publications was their failure to include references to architectural applications or design-related decisions.

The research process employed semantic search functions available within the Scopus and Web of Science Core Collection databases, supported by their built-in AI-powered search assistance systems. The utilisation of AI tools was meticulously restricted to the domains of supporting literature identification and the filtration of search results. These tools were not involved in the interpretation of content or the generation of any part of the article. The research process was conducted independently and in accordance with the relevant ethical guidelines and disciplinary practices specific to the field of architecture. This entailed the selection and classification of issues, as well as their subsequent interpretation.

The approach adopted in this study aligns with the principles of critical architectural review, combining literature synthesis with design-oriented interpretation as opposed to data aggregation.

2.3. The Process of Analysis and Classification

The extant literature was subjected to critical hermeneutic analysis, consistent with methodologies specific to architectural research, integrating observation, interpretation, and conceptualization. As the reading process was underway, key areas of tension were identified, in addition to recurring research and practical questions. In light of the findings, a total of fifteen design challenges were categorised into three distinct levels of recognition: well-recognised, moderately recognised, and poorly recognised. The categorization was not determined solely by the number of publications, but rather by the quality of the topic’s presence in design discourse, its methodological maturity, its relevance to practice, its interdisciplinary nature, and its innovative potential.

The categorisation of the fifteen design challenges into three levels of recognition was grounded in a qualitative assessment, which was itself based on architectural research methodology. Rather than relying on quantitative metrics such as citation counts or keyword frequency, the analysis prioritised interpretive criteria that reflect how each topic is framed and discussed within both academic literature and design-oriented publications. The selection criteria encompassed the thematic consistency and recurrence of each topic in peer-reviewed sources between 2020 and 2025, its methodological maturity, and the presence of interdisciplinary approaches. The relevance of each challenge to actual architectural practice was considered, as evidenced by built examples or applied research, and the presence of clearly defined theoretical frameworks or critical perspectives was also taken into account. The classification process was iterative and interpretive in nature. The methodology entailed repeated reading, cross-comparison of sources, and coding-based analysis to identify conceptual overlaps and degrees of integration into the architectural discourse. This approach is consistent with the logic of conceptual reviews in design disciplines, where the complexity of problems often exceeds the capacity for reduction to strictly measurable indicators.

2.4. Specificity of Architectural Research

In contradistinction to other engineering disciplines, research in the field of architecture is grounded in a model of design knowledge, in which theory and practice intersect in a non-linear manner. Consequently, the adopted methodology does not aspire to deliver an exhaustive scoping review, but rather an approach that facilitates integrated thinking about design, environment, and culture. This approach facilitates not only the identification of research gaps but also opportunities to redefine concepts, tools, and design strategies in the context of contemporary environmental and social transformations.

In order to enhance the transparency of the adopted approach and allow the reader to reconstruct the research logic, a tabular summary is presented below (

Table 1. Main Stages of Analysis, Methodological Criteria, and Specific Research Objectives.

Analysis Stage	Description	Analytical Focus
Defining the research objective	Identification of key contemporary design challenges in timber architecture, whose presence in the literature remains fragmentary or unstructured.	Identification of topics requiring further research and consideration in design practice.
Selecting literature sources	Selection of sources from Scopus and Web of Science Core Collection databases, published between 2020 and 2025, focusing on timber architecture.	Ensure thematic representativeness and up-to-date sources
Criteria for selecting publications	Inclusiveness for interdisciplinary, design, social, and environmental publications, provided they refer to architecture or design practice.	Elimination of publications of a purely technological, chemical, or materials science nature without a design component.
Search strategies	Iterative search using a combination of keywords related to design, material, environment, perception, symbolism, and circular economy.	Obtaining a diverse, representative collection of texts supporting the diagnosis of architectural problems.
Method of content analysis	Application of critical hermeneutic analysis: analysis of content, context, and language used to describe design problems from a designer’s perspective.	Identifying emerging topics, design thinking patterns, and typologies of design problems.
Typology of research problems	Classification of fifteen problems into three levels of recognition: high, medium, and low—based on their presence and establishment in scientific and design discourse.	Organizing the identified issues according to their recognition level and readiness for further scientific exploration.
Research perspective	The perspective of the researcher-architect; integration of scientific knowledge with design intuition and cultural reflection in the assessment of current environmental and social challenges.	Strengthening the role of design and cultural research in the analysis of environmental issues.
Methodological limitations	Lack of English in some European literature; failure to include non-indexed sources in the analysis; dominance of the academic environment over design practice.	Transparency of methodological limitations and potential areas of omission.

). The text delineates the fundamental phases of analysis, accompanied by their distinctive attributes, objectives, and thematic extent. The following table is intended to serve as a methodological map, the purpose of which is to organise the process of identifying and interpreting contemporary design challenges in timber architecture in a manner appropriate to research conducted within the discipline of architecture.

3. Results

3.1. Well-Recognized Problems

A number of research problems have been identified in the scientific literature that are already relatively well recognised, although further elaboration and contextualisation from an architectural design perspective is required. A comprehensive selection of issues was undertaken to establish the fundamental principles underpinning contemporary studies in timber architecture. This selection process involved the identification of five key areas, namely: (1) life cycle assessment (LCA), (2) carbon footprint reduction, (3) prefabrication and standardisation, (4) energy efficiency, and (5) fire safety of timber structures. The selection of these areas was made on the basis of their well-established position in interdisciplinary research and their relevance to the environmental, regulatory and technological challenges facing contemporary architecture.

3.1.1. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Materials and Buildings

The LCA methodology facilitates a comprehensive evaluation of the environmental impact of materials and construction processes by considering their entire life cycle, from raw material extraction through production and use to demolition. A growing body of research has highlighted that wood, as a biogenic material, can attain a substantially lower Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) score in comparison to conventional materials, particularly when evaluated dynamically and under the assumption of structural longevity [16,17,18,19,20].

3.1.2. Reducing the Carbon Footprint—Wood as a CO₂ Storage

The capacity of wood to store carbon over extended periods makes it a highly promising material in the fight against the climate crisis. Consequently, it is imperative to acknowledge the pivotal function it performs in the realm of decarbonization strategies within the construction sector. Although the process of carbon sequestration by growing trees has been the subject of much research, further analysis is required if this is to be translated into enduring architectural strategies, such as the longevity of buildings and wood recycling. It is evident that forestry scenarios, resource management practices and economic models have a direct impact on the long-term carbon balance of the timber construction sector. There is a broad consensus that substituting energy-intensive materials, such as concrete, with wood can lead to a substantial reduction in the overall carbon footprint of a building, provided that the entire life cycle is taken into account [21,22,23,24,25,26].

3.1.3. Prefabrication and Standardization—Efficiency of Construction Processes

The utilisation of prefabrication, employing timber and modular systems, is emerging as a pivotal strategy to enhance efficiency, reduce construction time, and minimise waste. Research has also indicated the possibility of integrating prefabrication with automation and robotics, thereby facilitating precise and material-efficient design. Nevertheless, further exploration is required from both architectural and economic perspectives in order to conduct a comprehensive environmental analysis of timber prefabrication processes and their impact on spatial flexibility and the building’s life cycle [27,28,29,30,31].

3.1.4. Energy Efficiency of Wooden Buildings

It has been demonstrated that timber buildings exhibit favourable thermal insulation properties, which contribute to reduced energy demand during operation. However, the efficacy of such systems is contingent upon the design of the building envelope, the technologies employed for its assembly, and the performance parameters in relation to the local climatic conditions. The extant literature also includes analyses of hybrid wood-insulation solutions that may further enhance thermal efficiency. Notwithstanding, there persists an absence of coherent design directives and integrated energy appraisal models that are tailored to timber architecture [32,33].

3.1.5. Fire Safety of Timber Structures

Despite the fact that contemporary timber construction systems, such as cross-laminated timber (CLT), comply with rigorous fire safety standards, fire safety remains a critical issue, both in terms of perception and design. The extant literature highlights the significance of passive design strategies, the implementation of suitable surface protections, and the monitoring of material behaviour during fire exposure. It is important to note that attention is drawn to regional differences in regulations and the absence of a unified methodology for assessing fire risk in timber buildings [34,35].

3.2. Moderately Recognized Problems

3.2.1. Impact of Certification (FSC, PEFC) on Architectural Design

The growing prominence of wood certification, as embodied by the two international systems FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) and PEFC (Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification), is exerting a discernible influence on contemporary architectural design, particularly with regard to pro-environmental strategies and the pursuit of climate neutrality. These systems function not only as mechanisms for verifying the legality and origin of wood, but also as frameworks for its responsible use throughout a building’s life cycle. From the architect’s perspective, their significance is multifaceted, extending from material selection and environmental modelling (LCA) to the aesthetics and functionality of the design. FSC and PEFC certifications serve to guarantee that the wood in question has been sourced from forests that are managed in accordance with the principles of sustainable development. This contributes to the reduction of environmental degradation and the protection of biodiversity. The chain of custody system enables architects to plan material budgets precisely in accordance with the environmental requirements of investors and the criteria of building certification systems such as LEED, BREEAM, or DGNB. In this particular context, the utilisation of certified wood assumes a dual role. Firstly, it serves as a deliberate design element, and secondly, it functions as a quantifiable metric for assessing the ecological impact of a project [36,37].

In the context of net-zero emission projects, the importance of certified wood becomes particularly salient. A substantial body of research has demonstrated that the utilisation of FSC- or PEFC-certified wood results in a substantial reduction in a building’s carbon footprint. This is primarily due to the material’s capacity for carbon sequestration, as well as the low energy intensity of its processing and transportation [38]. In this manner, certification directly contributes to the achievement of the parameters of a building with zero or negative CO₂ balance, a prerequisite increasingly demanded under the climate regulations of EU member states.

It is imperative to acknowledge the significance of the educational function of certification. In the field of architecture, there has been an increasing tendency among professionals to make deliberate decisions regarding the utilisation of materials from certified sources. This practice is not merely a response to formal requirements but also reflects a deep-seated conviction regarding the imperative of responsible design principles. Examples from Scandinavian countries and Austria demonstrate that familiarity with certification systems influences the approach to form, structure, and architectural detailing. It is therefore evident that the material nature of wood is superseded by its role as a carrier of environmental and cultural values [39].

The economic dimension of certification exerts a significant influence on the design process. Despite the higher initial costs associated with certified wood, research has demonstrated that the FSC and PEFC systems contribute to enhanced market transparency and support for the development of local supply chains. It is hypothesised that, in the long term, this will contribute to price stabilisation and reduce project delivery times [40].

The notion of certification, as embodied by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC), has gained prominence as a component of circular design. The labelling of timber materials facilitates the planning of disassembly, reuse, and recycling of components, aligning with the architectural strategy of Design for Disassembly. Certified wood, therefore, assumes a dual role: that of a structural element and a tool for the implementation of the circular economy. Consequently, it serves to extend the architect’s responsibility across the entire life cycle of the building [41].

In summary, the findings demonstrate that FSC and PEFC certification exerts a substantial and multifaceted influence on the realm of architectural design. The concept under discussion encompasses material selection and exerts influence on environmental strategies, logistics, design culture, and forward-looking approaches to circularity. It is recommended that future research endeavours concentrate on conducting a more profound examination of the associations between certification and the spatial and social quality of architecture. Additionally, it is advised that attention be given to the practical considerations involved in integrating these systems with the BIM model and environmental building assessment frameworks.

3.2.2. Life Cycle Modeling of Wooden Components (Traceability)—Digital Material Passports

In the current era of transition towards circular and sustainable architecture, digital material passports are becoming an essential tool for the tracking and optimisation of the life cycle of timber construction components. The integration of BIM technology, IoT systems and traceability standards within these passports empowers architects to meticulously plan, design and potentially dismantle building elements in a manner that is both environmentally and functionally conscious [42,43].

Preliminary research on BIM-based material passports has demonstrated that these tools have the potential to enhance the sustainability assessment of buildings to a considerable extent. The integration of components with digital life cycle records, encompassing LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) data, assembly and disassembly parameters, and assessment of reuse potential, enables the conceptualisation of designs that align with the paradigm of buildings as material banks [44].

The notion of decomposition and recovery for timber components has undergone further development through the introduction of indicators such as deconstructability, recovery, and environmental score. These indicators have been shown to support design decisions already at the architectural planning stage [45].

The extant literature also highlights challenges related to the lack of interoperability, data standardisation, and information security. The proposed solutions involve the integration of artificial intelligence with Building Information Modelling (BIM) tools. This integration enables more comprehensive documentation of the life cycle of timber components, from production to reuse [46].

In the domain of physical tracking technologies, data carriers such as QR codes and RFID tags are undergoing experimental evaluation. The effectiveness of these materials has been confirmed in pilot projects where they functioned as static material passports. However, it was noted that there was a need for data updates and integration with digital platforms. In the context of ensuring the traceability of raw materials, the utilisation of blockchain and NFC (near-field communication) technologies, bolstered by zero-knowledge proof protocols, facilitates the authentication and verification of the provenance of wood, even at the level of individual components [47].

Furthermore, digital product passports (DPPs), which are currently being developed under EU policy, are also intended to cover building components. The implementation of these systems will require the standardisation of data structures and integration with building information modelling tools [48].

In summary, digital material passports supported by BIM, IoT, and blockchain are becoming essential tools for tracking, evaluating, and optimising the life cycle of timber components. For architects, this translates not only into improved environmental management but also into the ability to design with reuse, disassembly, and resource circularity in mind. The development of these solutions poses significant research and implementation challenges for contemporary timber architecture.

3.2.3. Integration of Wood in Hybrid Structures—With Concrete, Steel, and Brick

Contemporary architecture is increasingly employing hybrid structures that combine the properties of wood with other structural materials, such as steel or concrete. This is done in order to simultaneously optimise technical performance, environmental impact, and aesthetic quality. The utilisation of wood, particularly in its mass timber forms such as CLT or glulam, in conjunction with concrete or steel, results in the creation of structural systems capable of supporting tall and slender buildings. This phenomenon is particularly apparent in container-like solutions, such as “plyscrapers”. This assertion is supported by the findings of reviews of connectors and analyses of hybrid systems [49].

Life cycle assessments (LCA) comparing steel-timber hybrid structures with concrete or fully steel alternatives confirm environmental advantages. The modelling of high-rise buildings (20 to 40 stories) demonstrates that steel-timber hybrids have the potential to achieve a 25 percent lower carbon footprint, despite the utilisation of steel in load-bearing structures, due to the substitution of concrete with mass timber [50]. Analogous outcomes were ascertained in the examination of a 10-storey edifice comprising a concrete core and a timber frame structure. The diminution in global warming potential (GWP) emissions amounted to approximately 35 percent in comparison with an edifice composed entirely of concrete [51].

Hybrid structures combining wood and concrete, particularly in Timber-Concrete Composite (TCC) systems, are gaining increasing attention. The advantages of this approach include optimised load-bearing capacity and reduced overall weight, whilst simultaneously improving seismic performance and enhancing acoustic control and indoor comfort. A significant increase in stiffness and more effective moment management in frame systems has been demonstrated by experimental and numerical analyses of full-scale TCC beams. This indicates greater design efficiency with minimal structural mass [52].

Moreover, steel-timber hybrid structures have been demonstrated to offer emission reductions ranging from 5 to 35 per cent, depending on material proportions and system configuration. The utilisation of steel for load-bearing elements and seismic frames is a customary practice in the design of these models. In contrast, wood is utilised in the infill panels, thus providing a combination of the advantages associated with rapid prefabrication, circularity, and the aesthetic appeal of natural surfaces (The practical study of steel-wood composite columns in light and low-carbon building—IOP-science) [53].

From an engineering perspective, the implementation of hybrid connections necessitates meticulous connection design and the coordination of material interactions. Recent studies have demonstrated that the implementation of suitable connector solutions, encompassing mechanical, composite, and hybrid methodologies, facilitates effective control of structural behaviour under both dynamic and static conditions [54,55].

The incorporation of wood within hybrid structures enables architects to formulate designs that exhibit a diminished carbon footprint, augmented material efficiency, and enhanced functional performance. Nevertheless, the implementation of these solutions in practice still necessitates further work on connection optimisation, long-term material behaviour verification, and the adaptation of building codes. It is imperative to delve into the intricacies of design, encompassing the influence of natural wood surfaces on spatial perception, the integration of material passport technologies, and the repercussions of mass timber on user health. Collectively, these elements constitute a promising foundation for interdisciplinary architectural research.

3.2.4. Durability and Biodegradation in the Context of the Circular Economy

In the context of transitioning to a circular economy, the issues of durability and biodegradation of wood in building structures are of particular significance. Whilst wood is widely regarded as an environmentally sustainable material, it is nevertheless susceptible to biological and chemical degradation, thus presenting challenges in the domains of design, building life cycles and the recovery of components at the conclusion of their useful life [56].

A review of the scientific literature indicates that the durability of mass timber, such as CLT and glulam, in multi-storey buildings is contingent on factors including moisture, microclimate and surface protection. The principal biological threats that have been identified are fungi, moulds and insects. These organisms have the capacity to significantly reduce the service life of structural elements, provided that appropriate barriers such as protective coatings and water-draining details are not incorporated into the design. This approach to durability is increasingly linked to the principles of Design for Repair and Design for Disassembly, which are critical to success in the circular model [57,58,59].

The subsequent phase of research will concentrate on the analysis of wood biodegradation in exterior applications, with a particular focus on façades, decking elements and wooden fittings. The experimental results obtained in this study demonstrate that the selection of species exhibiting high natural resistance, in conjunction with the application of eco-friendly coatings, such as plant-based oils, can prolong the material’s lifespan by several decades when compared to conventional impregnation methodologies [60]. This capacity is pivotal in enabling the planning of extended intervals between maintenance cycles, a necessity for preserving options for reuse and achieving a reduction in life cycle costs.

Material durability is also a foundation for the potential reuse of structural elements. The extant literature addresses the issue of parametric assessment of wood degradation levels, which can be integrated into a material passport. Research on probabilistic grading of end-of-life components, although primarily conducted on concrete, suggests the possibility of applying similar methods to wood. This would facilitate the process of making informed decisions regarding reuse, remanufacturing, or recycling [61]. Such a model is imperative for ensuring that a component can be sustained and retained as a valuable resource in subsequent use cycles.

Another recommendation is the adaptation of wood within the structure of a circular façade. This is to be designed as a module that can be disassembled, repaired, and ultimately biodegraded or composted. It has been demonstrated by a number of compelling conceptual illustrations that the incorporation of biodegradable façades, when designed as interchangeable biocomposite systems, has the potential to engender a reduction in energy consumption and CO₂ emissions by up to 20% [62]. Despite the restricted availability of such technologies in the construction industry, the potential for wood-based materials is evident.

In the context of life cycle analysis, the role of wood is twofold, encompassing its participation in both the technical and biological cycles of materials. A thorough examination of extant literature pertaining to the circular economy strategies for wood waste reveals a paucity of attention to critical stages in the process, namely those relating to transport, sorting and the classification of materials subsequent to disassembly [63]. The necessity of systemic logistical solutions, coupled with the support of public policies and technical standards, has been identified.

To summarise, the durability of wood and the challenges of biodegradation are of central importance to the circular economy model. In the planning of building life cycles, it is incumbent upon architects and engineers to give due consideration to material protection, usage-level parameterisation and the incorporation of biodegradable materials. It is imperative to adopt an integrated design approach, encompassing every stage of the process from detailing to material passports to return logistics, in order to ensure the effective utilisation of wood as a renewable resource rather than a single-use material. In the context of ongoing developments in standards and technologies, the concepts of durability and biodegradability are set to assume paramount significance in the evaluation of architectural projects within the domain of sustainable construction.

3.2.5. Social Perception of Wood as a Modern Material

Recent years have seen a marked incongruity between the social perception of wood as a modern material and the pervasive stereotypes regarding its durability, safety and maintenance. It is evident that wood is increasingly being associated with ecology, aesthetics, user comfort and design, in accordance with the principles of biophilic architecture. Furthermore, the subject has given rise to a number of concerns that have not been substantiated by empirical evidence. These include, but are not limited to, the potential for flammability and a high degree of susceptibility to biodegradation. In addition, the operational demands are such that they cannot be considered to be within acceptable parameters. The overcoming of these barriers is dependent upon the synergy between education targeted at specific social groups and subtle architectural design that integrates technology detailing and communication of material values [64].

Meta-analyses in material psychology have indicated that the perception of wood is shaped not only by objective parameters such as emissions or durability, but also by subjective aesthetic and cultural associations, as well as technical knowledge. These factors vary across demographic and psychographic profiles [64]. It is imperative to acknowledge the influence of cultural differences on the interpretation of the material. In Poland, there is an increasing interest in timber construction; however, there remains a lack of full acceptance of raw, uncoated surfaces. This assertion is corroborated by comparative studies on the energetic and architectural role of wood in Poland and Portugal [65]. The findings of these studies demonstrate that, despite the appreciation of wood for its ecological and aesthetic qualities, stereotypes still exert a significant influence on the decisions of investors and users.

A study conducted in Scandinavian countries found that the acceptance of wood in architecture was strongly correlated with personality traits such as openness to new experiences and prior exposure to wooden buildings. This finding indicates the necessity for educational campaigns that are customised to align with the diverse characteristics of different social groups [66]. Recent statistics indicating a rising trend in the utilisation of wood in new construction projects in Poland suggest a potential shift in public attitudes towards environmental sustainability. This transition might be influenced by educational initiatives and the dissemination of environmental values, which could have contributed to a change in perception regarding the environmental benefits of wood as a construction material [67]. Concomitantly, in order to transcend superficial associations, it is imperative to showcase the visual and technical capabilities of wood as a contemporary, resilient and user-friendly material.

The pivotal instruments for modifying user perception are design: elements crafted with durability and aesthetics as priorities, surface finishes that accentuate durability, and transparent communication of technology (e.g., protected coatings, controlled patina). In this capacity, architects function as mediators and curators, wielding influence through their decisions that shape the perception of wood as a material of the future, rather than a relic of the past.

In summary, the public perception of wood continues to oscillate between stereotypical and modern conceptions. Education and design, with an increasing focus on promoting the ecological, technical and aesthetic values of wood, are key to building trust. Poland serves as a pertinent case study due to the burgeoning popularity of timber construction and its documented impact on the market. This phenomenon exemplifies a nation where deliberate design and educational initiatives can effectively transform attitudes and foster the growth of timber architecture.

3.3. Poorly Recognized Problems

3.3.1. Upcycling Low-Grade Wood in Design

In the context of the circular economy, one of the research gaps pertains to the upcycling of low-grade wood, a material derived from sawmills, construction, or waste residues, which typically ends up as biomass or a low-value product. Recent research has revealed promising approaches, but there is still a paucity of standardised methods and case studies on an architectural scale [68,69].

A notable illustration of this is the analysis of solutions derived from wood sourced from pallets utilised in the production of CLT (Cross-Laminated Timber). Research has demonstrated that such panels, manufactured from recycled wood, can achieve mechanical properties comparable to those of new materials. This promotes the ecological and efficient use of resources. [70]. This demonstrates that the upcycling of low-grade wood is a technically viable process, with the potential to enhance its utility value.

However, the majority of initiatives concentrate on waste materials from the formwork market or industrial processing residues. A case in point is a framework project that is predicated on the digitalisation of waste, three-dimensional scanning, and the genera-tion of structures from “off-cut wood”. These structures are then evaluated using finite element methods to ascertain their load-bearing capacity and potential applications in construction or furniture [69]. Notwithstanding the potential of the technology, this approach is still in the experi-mental phase and has not yet entered common architectural practice.

Furthermore, the utilisation of prototypes has demonstrated that irregular wood, such as that which is obtained from formwork, can be repurposed as façade elements fol-lowing a process of selection, digital processing, and strength testing [71]. These projects demonstrate the feasibility of upcycling from a technological standpoint. However, there remains a paucity of standardisation in construction, life cycle assess-ment (LCA) metrics, and economic viability scenarios at the architectural level.

From the perspective of the supply chain and logistics, the primary concern pertains to the absence of a framework that is integrated with design. Conceptual models of upcycling production networks that link low-grade wood suppliers, design companies, and component manufacturers appear to be at the proposal stage, with no industrial implementations to date. It is evident that such network sketches also result in the limitation of the scalability of solutions in urban and regional contexts [68].

A further significant scientific deficit pertains to the paucity of long-term analyses investigating the durability and patination of upcycled elements when subjected to outdoor conditions. Preliminary data on moisture resistance and solar ageing are encouraging, but there is a paucity of consistent monitoring studies, especially in real construction and operating conditions.

In summary, the upcycling of low-grade wood represents a significant area of potential yet one which is still under-researched in the context of architectural and construction science. Despite the existence of examples demonstrating the utilisation of waste materials in the fabrication of high-value components, the following elements are requisite:

• standardized methods for mechanical and environmental assessment,
• local supply chain and production systems,
• case studies of architectural implementations,
• research on long-term durability and integration.

It is asserted that the integration of digital, design and logistics technologies is imperative for the successful implementation of upcycling as a method of transforming waste into high-value materials in the future architecture sector.

3.3.2. Digital Design Methods for Wood

In the contemporary epoch of digital architecture transformation, parametric and generative methods are beginning to assume an increasingly significant role in the design of wooden structures. These methods facilitate precise adaptation of form, structure, and material performance to complex ecological, technical, and aesthetic requirements. Despite the extensive utilisation of these techniques in other materials, their full potential in the context of wood, particularly glulam and CLT, remains under-researched [72].

A body of research has been conducted on CLT panels using parametric-generative algorithms. This research demonstrates the possibility of creating optimised geometries that consider the environmental impact of the material and its structural performance [49]. Nevertheless, the number of analogous projects remains restricted, and their implementation in full-scale construction experiments has not yet been achieved.

Moreover, the integration of digital design processes and robotic manufacturing facilitates the automated generation of entire structures, ranging from parametric models to code for CNC machines and robots. Notwithstanding, the utilisation of such systems remains within the domain of experimental research, necessitating validation with regard to scalability and production costs [73].

The practical benefits of parametric modelling are illustrated by the following examples: in the design of a wooden hall, the Grasshopper tool and a genetic algorithm were used to optimise the shape of glulam, which reduced material consumption while maintaining strength [74]. Nevertheless, this is a case study rather than a systematic approach that is utilised in commercial practice.

In the domain of education, an analysis of interdisciplinary workshops has demonstrated that students specialising in architecture, engineering, and wood sciences derive considerable benefit from a parametric approach, particularly in the context of virtualisation and digital collaboration. However, it should be noted that challenges pertaining to data interoperability and technological barriers have also been identified. Nevertheless, there is an absence of continuous measurement of the design and environmental performance of the developed models [75].

From a scientific perspective, the challenge lies in the limited number of verified examples, as evidenced by the paucity of long-term studies, comparisons between different materials, and integration of generative processes with LCA and bioclimatic parameters. In the absence of systematic case studies and production data, it is challenging to evaluate the extent to which these methods can be implemented in a broader context of timber architecture [76].

To summarise, the scientific understanding of digital generative and parametric methods for wood is limited, despite the evident potential of these methods. The development of standardised design frameworks, tools compatible with Building Information Modelling (BIM), and automated production is essential. In addition, the validation of experimental data in terms of structural, environmental, and economic performance is imperative. It is only at this juncture that timber architecture will be in a position to reap the full benefits of intelligent design and optimal performance.

3.3.3. The Role of Wood in Temporary and Adaptable Buildings

In light of the mounting imperative for flexible, sustainable spaces, wood emerges as a material of choice for the construction of temporary and adaptable buildings. The lightweight construction, rapid prefabrication, and dismantling capabilities of the structure are in accordance with the principles of the circular economy. Despite the increasing importance of the topic, there remains an urgent necessity for further research, both technological and design-related, in the scientific literature (2020–2025).

A comprehensive analysis of 60 cases of prefabricated modular timber structures has demonstrated that the proposed systems, designated as “volumetric modular timber units,” possess considerable potential for functional adaptation and reassembly in a range of architectural contexts. This finding suggests the feasibility of constructing flexible structures that allow for reconfiguration. However, the current research is predominantly descriptive, and there is a paucity of analytical data concerning the durability of such structures [77].

A review of the literature on Design for Dismantling (DfD) in timber construction reveals that the design of temporary buildings can be approached with structural adaptability as a key consideration. However, it is evident that current theoretical analyses predominate, and there is a paucity of practical solutions and a lack of a comprehensive model classification of technological layers of adaptability [78,79].

Experiments with modularisation demonstrate that prefabricated wooden modules can be designed as universal units that are straightforward to assemble, disassemble, transport, and reconfigure depending on requirements (e.g., residential, educational, or recreational). This approach has been demonstrated to have a significant impact on the construction process, with a notable reduction in the time taken to complete the project. Furthermore, it has been shown to minimise waste, thereby reducing the environmental impact of the construction process. In addition, the approach allows for the structure to be dynamically adapted to changing user requirements, thus ensuring the flexibility and adaptability required for a variety of uses. Nonetheless, the scientific documentation is incomplete, and further research is required to verify the strength and environmental parameters [80].

From an engineering perspective, joints that allow for repeated assembly and disassembly without loss of load-bearing capacity pose a significant challenge. It is evident that the subjects under discussion have hitherto been delineated exclusively within the ambit of experimental enquiry. There has been a paucity of research focusing on the durability of these subjects and the standardisation of the processes employed in their fabrication. Furthermore, there appears to be a paucity of cost analyses and LCAs comparing temporary buildings with traditional solutions [11].

A further significant knowledge gap pertains to the assessment of space adaptation conditions, encompassing both functional aspects (for instance, the conversion of a conference room into an apartment) and bio-climatic considerations (for example, adjustments to insulation, acoustics and ventilation). Local contexts and user requirements are in a state of constant flux; however, there is an absence of systematic research methodologies that can assist designers in the creation of multi-use designs [81].

In summary, wood has been demonstrated to have considerable potential as a material for the construction of temporary and adaptable buildings, offering flexibility, prefabrication, and circularity. However, the extant research is limited in scope and remains largely conceptual. The scientific challenges that must be addressed are as follows:

• developing modular structures with documented load-bearing capacity and resistance to multiple changes,
• analyzing the long-term durability of reusable joints,
• integrating the concept of adaptable spaces with LCA standards and costs,
• establishing operational and technological standards for temporary architecture.

In order to realise the vision of adaptable wooden buildings as fully-fledged elements of sustainable architecture of the future, experimental prototyping and long-term case studies are necessary.

3.3.4. Wood in Climatic and Environmental Aesthetics

It is becoming increasingly evident that wood is assuming a prominent role in the realm of environmental and climatic aesthetics, melding its tangible material presence with the perceptible microclimate of the spatial environment. The natural texture and patina of the material in outdoor spaces, as well as its presence in interior spaces, have a significant impact on the perception of thermal, visual and emotional comfort. However, research exploring the relationship between the materiality of wood, climate change, and perceived climates remains scattered and fragmentary, placing this topic in an area that is poorly understood scientifically [82,83].

Evidence suggests that wood surfaces elicit a sense of visual “warmth” and comfort, particularly when integrated with other materials, such as fabric or tile. Specifically, an increase in the coverage of wood surfaces has been shown to result in heightened sensations of warmth and cosiness, which in turn influence the relaxing function of the space [84]. Concurrently, it was determined that the optimal ratio of light and materials is paramount for preserving a harmonious equilibrium between aesthetic appeal and physical comfort.

Polish-Portuguese studies have confirmed that the perception of wood is that it is both “fashionable” and environmentally friendly, and that it enhances the aesthetic value of a building. However, the manner in which it has weathered over time gives rise to aesthetic concerns, suggesting the presence of a distinct “perceptual climate,” a term denoting a combination of environmental expectations and the aesthetic sensitivity of users [65]. This study represents merely the initial steps in an area of research that has not yet been explored, namely the emotional impact of wood patina changing in different climates and cultures.

A paucity of research has been observed in the analysis of the relationship between wood parameters (species, texture, layer thickness) and user perceptions. Despite the findings of research in the field of environmental psychology that suggest an excess of wood may result in overstimulation or emotional distress, the quantity and quality of wood present in the environment remain inadequate [85].

The existing literature also lacks interdisciplinary studies that would combine sensory perception of wood with objective measurements of indoor microclimate, including temperature, humidity and air quality. To illustrate this point, one may consider the potential value of Polish studies of interiors with thermo-wood and their impact on thermal comfort. Such studies could serve as a foundation for comparative analyses of materiality [63,67].

In summary, contemporary wood has emerged as an aesthetic climate regulator of perception, with the capacity to support both user comfort and ecological design objectives. Nevertheless, the relationship between its materiality and changes in perceived climate, both mental and environmental, remains an area of research that has not yet been fully explored and understood. In the context of the pursuit of a “climate aesthetic,” it is imperative to integrate physical, psychological, and cultural metrics to formulate comprehensive design models for wood-based environments.

3.3.5. Cultural Durability of Wooden Architecture—Local Symbolism and Narratives

A body of research has been dedicated to the exploration of the cultural signification of timber architecture in a number of regional studies, with a particular focus on Japan, Scandinavia, and certain regions of Latin America. In these traditions, the significance of wood is often associated with its role in ritual, memory, and ecological ethics. Examples of wooden buildings that embody local identity and social continuity include Shinto shrine rebuilding cycles in Japan, stave churches in Norway, and Andean vernacular construction. Nevertheless, despite the existence of such studies, a significant proportion of this research remains constrained by historical or anthropological perspectives, with a paucity of connections to contemporary architectural design processes. Moreover, there remains a paucity of comparative approaches and cross-cultural frameworks for interpreting the durability of symbols [86,87,88].

Examples from Japan demonstrate that temple architecture and wooden palace cabins play a pivotal role in communities. However, their protection is primarily based on preserving traditional narratives and rituals associated with revitalisation at specific times. Nevertheless, there is an absence of standardised comparative methodologies and instruments for conveying these meanings in the design or conservation process [87,88].

In the Scandinavian countries of Norway and Switzerland, research is currently being conducted on the landscape value of historic wooden churches and village houses. The primary focus of this research is to emphasise the role of these structures in shaping regional identity and their potential for revitalisation. However, in the majority of cases, efforts to conserve cultural heritage focus exclusively on technical durability and minimising the carbon footprint. This approach disregards the socio-cultural and narrative dimensions [89,90].

For instance, the aesthetic codes governing the design of traditional Japanese timber interiors are directly tied to spiritual beliefs and the idea of a second life for wood as a sacred material [91]. In China, wood has long functioned as a bearer of cultural identity, whether through architectural wood-carvings, structural symbolism, or material substitution practices that preserve meaning across time [92,93].

In the European context, the potential of wooden architecture(e to foster local communities is highlighted. This potential is realised through the revitalisation of older buildings and the integration of community courtyards or public spaces. Nevertheless, methodologies for evaluating the impact of such architecture on identity and narrative remain fragmented and are frequently constrained to cultural analyses without translation into design tools.

Despite its rich heritage of wooden monuments and traditions (arcaded houses, Orthodox churches, Świdermajer houses), Poland provides valuable examples that also confirm research gaps. Research on the “Świdermajer” in Otwock indicates that these wooden structures served as symbols of national and natural identity, yet their cultural sustainability was contingent on local narratives and social participation. The analysis of their role in today’s cultural landscape is unfortunately inconsistent, and protection is primarily based on aesthetic rather than social values [94].

This tendency is substantiated by the paucity of interdisciplinary research integrating architecture, sociology and ethnography. The conservation of wooden monuments in Poland is predominantly focused on technical aspects, with a disregard for cultural narratives and the abolition of local spatial memory [95]. Consequently, the architectural potential for designing new content and rituals in wooden spaces remains to be explored.

The paucity of research also pertains to the paradigm of regenerative architecture, which, in its narrative assumptions, creates spatial bonds based on local histories. Despite its strong heritage, Polish wooden architecture rarely becomes an exemplar of systemic thinking about spatial and symbolic narratives in the design process.

To summarise, the cultural sustainability of wooden architecture, characterised by local narratives, symbolic value and community identification, remains under-researched within the scientific community. A comparative, interdisciplinary approach is required, integrating historical analysis, regional studies, ethnography, sociology, and architectural design. In the absence of this, wooden architecture risks losing not only its material substance, but also its cultural essence, which enables it to endure and transform the landscape of local and global identity.

3.4. Comparison of Selected Research Problems

A review of the literature identified fifteen key design challenges in contemporary timber architecture. These challenges reflect a multidimensional landscape of technical, environmental, social and cultural issues, with varying degrees of recognition in research and practice. The organisation of the collected material was facilitated by the development of

Table 2. Comparison of selected research problems in wooden architecture.

Research Problem	Level of Recognition	Dominant Dimension	Potential for Innovation	Degree of Presence in Literature 2020–2025	Significance for Architectural Practice
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Materials and Buildings	High	Environmental	Established	Numerous studies and reviews	High—affects all environmental decisions
Reducing the carbon footprint—Wood as a CO2 storage	High	Environmental	High	Numerous studies and reviews	High—key to the carbon balance
Prefabrication and Standardization—Efficiency of Construction Processes	High	Technological	High	Numerous studies and reviews	High—shapes the implementation logic
Energy efficiency of wooden buildings	High	Energetic	High	Numerous studies	High—determines the operating parameters
Fire safety of timber structures	High	Safety	Medium	Well documented	Medium—necessary by regulation, not by design
Impact of Certification (FSC, PEFC) on Architectural Design	Medium	Certification	High	Single studies	Medium—affects material choices and image
Life Cycle Modeling of Wooden Components (Traceability)—Digital Material Passports	Medium	Circular Economy /Life Cycle	High	Fragmentary representations in literature	High—enables circular economy and BIM-integration
Integration of Wood in Hybrid Structures—with Concrete, Steel, and Brick	Medium	Structural	Medium	Partially explored	Medium—supports combining technologies
Durability and biodegradation in the context of circular economy	Medium	Material	High	Scattered sources	Medium—difficult in design and aesthetics
Social perception of wood as a modern material	Medium	Social	High	Single studies	Medium—affects public perception
Upcycling low-grade wood in design	Low	Circular Economy /Aesthetic	High	Research novelty	High—designing from difficult materials
Digital design methods for wood	Low	Design/Digital	Very high	Experimental approaches	Very high—affects the creative process
The role of wood in temporary and adaptable buildings	Low	Adaptive/Functional	Medium	Lack of systematization	Medium—growing in the context of mobility
Wood in climatic and environmental aesthetics	Low	Aesthetic/Climate	High	Marginal presence	High—shapes the climate and comfort
Cultural Durability of Wooden Architecture—Local Symbolism and Narratives	Low	Cultural/Symbolic	Very high	Marginal presence	Very high—builds the identity of the place

, in which each topic was assigned a level of recognition based on its frequency in the literature and the depth of its study. The classification system is organised into three distinct levels: high, medium, and low. This approach enables the identification of both well-recognised and extensively described areas, as well as those that are only beginning to be addressed by the research community.

This summary is supplemented by an illustration showing a classification matrix, referred to as Figure 1. The arrangement of the fifteen topics is visual, and is contained within a two-dimensional space. In this space, one dimension represents the level of recognition, and the other refers to the dominant aspect of the problem. The graphic classification system comprises four fundamental categories: technological, environmental, social, and cultural. Furthermore, it became imperative to incorporate a fifth category, designated “systemic/regulatory,” during the course of the analysis. The programme encompasses subjects pertaining to certification, the digital life cycle tracking of materials, design documentation methods, and process standardisation. The allocation of these issues to a single, traditional category proves challenging, as they pertain to formal and regulatory instruments that exceed the conventional boundaries between technology and the environment.

The new category has been incorporated solely within the graphic layer. This does not result in any alteration to the table’s structural framework; rather, it facilitates a more precise organisation of subjects and the demonstration of their interrelationships within the broader context of the entire matrix. The employment of both tabular and graphic forms of presentation facilitates the concurrent preservation of detailed descriptions and insight into the overall thematic structure of the analysed issue.

The allocation of recognition levels was based on a qualitative evaluation of thematic visibility in the literature, methodological development, and relevance to architectural practice, as outlined in Section 2.3.

Whilst the matrix classification system organises topics according to their categorisation and level of recognition (Figure 1), it does not reflect the complex relationships and dependencies between individual issues. In practice, many topics overlap and are interdependent, and the boundaries between technological, environmental, and social aspects are often blurred. To address this limitation, an additional illustration has been developed to depict the network of links between selected topics. The configuration of these relationships is of a qualitative nature, predicated upon an analysis of the content of sources in which individual issues manifest themselves in the context of others. The connections indicated are not hierarchical, but rather demonstrate coexistence, functional dependence, or potential research complementarity. Figure 2 thus serves as a synthetic relational model that complements the classification presented earlier and allows us to see the directions of knowledge integration within the analysed area.

4. Discussion

A review of selected issues related to wooden architecture that have received insufficient recognition confirms that the dynamic development of construction technologies and environmental pressure have effectively anchored wood in the mainstream of research on sustainable architecture. However, it is important to note that the preeminence of engineering and environmental research has resulted in the marginalisation or overly narrow interpretation of numerous aspects that are significant from the perspectives of designers, users, and cultural contexts. The present discussion seeks to undertake a critical interpretation of three groups of problems: namely, those which are well-recognized, moderately recognized, and poorly recognized. The discussion places particular emphasis on the interdependencies between these problems, eschewing isolated analysis.

4.1. Well-Recognized Problems: Does the Number of Studies Mean the Problem Is Solved?

A plethora of studies have been conducted on the subjects of carbon footprint reduction, life cycle assessment (LCA), prefabrication, energy efficiency, and fire safety. Nonetheless, the issue remains unresolved: does the level of knowledge regarding these issues result in their effective integration into design practice? In many cases, technical knowledge is well developed, yet designers utilise it in a selective or delayed manner. For instance, LCA as a decision-making tool is still not employed in the early stages of conceptual design [96], and fire safety is only implemented at the technical supervision stage [97]. This indicates a discrepancy between the availability of knowledge and its integration into complex architectural processes, a topic that merits further research.

4.2. Moderately Recognized Problems: Tension Between the System and Experience

It is evident that a clear conflict exists between the systemic engineering approach and soft design aspects within the group of moderately recognised issues (hybrid integration, certification, circular economy, traceability, social perception). For instance, the focus of FSC and PEFC certification in technical documents is on raw material sources. However, the architectural consequences of this, such as the implications for aesthetics or the availability of local materials, are not addressed [98]. In a similar vein, the ability to trace construction elements has the potential to facilitate not only the logistics of the circular economy, but also the development of local narratives and user education. However, these applications have not been considered in the extant literature on the subject [99].

The integration of wood in hybrid structures (with steel and concrete) reveals another tension. Designers are often faced with a compromise between material expression and structural optimisation, which does not always find a satisfactory solution [100]. Despite the increasing prevalence of hybrid buildings in high-rise construction, there is a paucity of architectural analysis of this practice. The majority of publications focus on mechanics and energy consumption, with little consideration given to space, rhythm, and details.

The prevailing underappreciation within this group pertains to the social perception of wood as an “old” or “rustic” material, a perception that limits its presence in public and urban spaces [101]. Moreover, the failure to acknowledge these mechanisms has led to the unconscious perpetuation of design stereotypes that hinder the integration of wood with modernity and innovation.

4.3. Poorly Recognized Problems: Absent Everyday Architecture

It is evident that there is a paucity of research in this area, both in terms of the data available and the language used to describe the topics in question. The cultural nature of these topics, as well as their design, is particularly noteworthy in this regard. Issues such as upcycling low-grade wood, climate aesthetics, and temporariness are present in practice but difficult to capture in scientific research.

The practice of upcycling recovered wood, for instance from sources such as pallets, packaging, and demolition, is a prevalent feature in low-tech projects. However, it remains an under-researched area in terms of its impact on spatial quality, building standards, and aesthetic perception [102]. Furthermore, architects frequently eschew the use of these materials due to concerns regarding design stigmatisation, thereby perpetuating a cycle of exclusion that hinders the integration of raw materials within the framework of the circular economy.

The temporary nature and adaptability of wooden structures are, in turn, crucial in the context of climate change. However, there is a paucity of studies analysing wood as a medium for responsive architecture, flexible, variable, ephemeral [103]. Conversely, it is precisely seasonal wooden structures, pavilions, and modular buildings that may provide a solution to the challenges posed by migration and urban crises.

The issue of digital design (parameterisation, generativity) for wood possesses significant formal potential; however, its recognition remains experimental and technologically immature [104]. A paucity of correlation has been observed between recent technological innovations (for example, material optimisation in Rhinoceros/Grasshopper) and the practicalities of manufacturing and standards.

It is evident that the issue of the climate aesthetics of wood, including its ageing, oxidation, odour and texture, is largely overlooked in the context of environmental research. This is paradoxical, given that it is precisely the sensory and affective properties of the material that determine the quality of architecture from the user’s perspective [105]. Consequently, a discrepancy arises between the quantifiable characteristics of materials (e.g., the lambda of wood) and the subjective experience of spatial perception.

Despite the fact that the cultural significance of timber has been addressed in a variety of local and historical contexts, recent studies suggest that there is a necessity to reconsider the manner in which material symbolism is integrated into contemporary design processes. In the context of Malay architecture, for instance, the application of woodcraft and ornamentation is closely associated with spiritual and cosmological values. This demonstrates the manner in which materials contribute to the construction of cultural significance [106,107]. In the context of Chinese Buddhist temples, the utilisation of timber has been demonstrated to augment the emotional resonance of the sacred space, thereby reinforcing collective memory through sensorial experience [108]. In a more extensive sense, architectural theory has commenced an examination of the manner in which meanings are constructed through the interaction between material choices and cultural narratives. This suggests that wood should be regarded not only as a technical solution, but also as a symbolic medium embedded in social identity [109].

The findings demonstrate that the symbolic dimension of timber remains a pertinent aspect in contemporary discourse. Nevertheless, its integration into contemporary design strategies remains constrained. The necessity to bridge this gap is evident, and the solution lies in the employment of interdisciplinary tools that connect anthro-pological knowledge with design practice. Such tools must also recognise materiality as a site of cultural production.

4.4. The Use of Wooden Facades in Design Practice

In the context of mounting environmental challenges and the imperative to curtail greenhouse gas emissions, wood is witnessing a resurgence in its favour as a facade material. Its aesthetic qualities, renewability, and low carbon footprint have led to an increase in its popularity among architects and investors [65]. The selection of the most suitable wood species for a given context should be informed by considerations of local climatic conditions and the availability of raw material, characterised by durability and dimensional stability. In the context of escalating demand and diminishing construction resources, the accessibility of wood has emerged as a pivotal consideration [67]. A primary design challenge persists in guaranteeing the durability of facades when confronted with variable weather conditions. It is imperative to exercise meticulous care in the selection of wood, in addition to employing suitable protection methods. This encompasses both chemical solutions, such as impregnants, oils, and UV coatings, as well as technological treatments, including thermal modification or construction details that limit the influence of moisture [110]. The durability of cladding is contingent not only on the quality of the wood, but also on precise workmanship and correct design solutions, as field studies on buildings with prefabricated panels have confirmed [111]. The utilisation of wood as a renewable and recyclable raw material aligns with the principles of sustainable design. The utilisation of local species or thermally modified wood has been demonstrated to result in a substantial reduction of the environmental impact of a building, particularly when assessing the life cycle of the material [112]. It is imperative to emphasise that proper maintenance is also crucial for the ecological efficiency of this solution, as it affects its environmental balance over a period of up to 30 years of use.

The following design exemplars constitute a continuation of the aforementioned analysis, with the purpose of providing a practical illustration of the theoretical discussion through the presentation of specific project cases.The objective of including these exemplars is to demonstrate the practical application of the material and technological solutions that have been discussed in the context of real architectural projects. The Vertikal Nydalen building in Oslo serves as a prime example of the integration of a wooden façade within the urban and climatic context of Scandinavia. Through a comparative analysis of three original designs, the paper elucidates the diversity of design approaches and the aesthetic and functional virtues of wood as a façade material.

In this manner, the exemplification of the Vertical Nyboden buildings in Oslo (2024) by Snohetta is demonstrated (Figure 3). Despite the fact that its structural composition does not consist of timber, the façade is clad in thermally modified pine arranged in irregular vertical strips. The architects describe the material as “a natural, textural material with familiar aesthetics and a connection to nature,” noting that the choice of wood was intended to create a warmer, more tactile expression than that typical of office buildings. As the timber undergoes a transition from a brown to a grey hue, it serves to underscore a temporal connection between the edifice and its immediate environment. The utilisation of wood also contributes to a reduced embodied carbon footprint. This example demonstrates the potential of timber façades to serve both environmental goals and sensory and symbolic functions, thereby enhancing public perception and material identity [113].

The architectural design of a residential and commercial building (Figure 4a) intended for a community self-help centre and a support facility for children with intellectual disabilities is an exemplary model of responsible architecture embedded in the local context. The edifice integrates seamlessly with the adjacent verdant surroundings and the magnitude of the development. The facades have been constructed from local larch wood (Larix decidua), which has undergone azure treatment. The semi-transparent coating serves to accentuate the inherent structure of the wood, whilst simultaneously protecting it from the elements and allowing it to age naturally. The utilisation of water-based glazes is a commendable approach that is environmentally friendly and allows for vapor permeability, thereby extending the durability of the ventilated facade. The material’s renewability, without the necessity of removing previous layers, further enhances its longevity. The configuration of the façade is predicated on a vertical arrangement of boards and slats, which function as sunshades and meticulously organise the glazed space. The natural graying of wood is an integral component of the aesthetic concept underpinning the design. In conjunction with the surrounding plant life, this treatment serves to emphasise the welcoming and serene atmosphere of the locale, a factor that is of particular significance within the framework of the users’ requirements.

The design of the building in the Czerniakowski Port in Warsaw (Figure 4b) presents an approach to architecture focused on durability and environmental responsibility, where a wooden façade made of local European larch (Larix decidua) plays a key role. The species’ high resin content affords it significant resistance to weather conditions, thus classifying it as one of the most durable domestic conifers for facade applications. The wood was subjected to a process of charring, inspired by the shou sugi ban technique. This process increased the biological resistance of the wood and gave the surface a dark, graphite-like colour. The resultant carbon layer provides a natural protective barrier, obviating the necessity for chemical coatings. Consequently, the facade successfully integrates aesthetic appeal with technological functionality. The solutions employed are consistent with the principles of sustainable design, as evidenced by the utilisation of local, renewable raw materials, the incorporation of durable construction details, and the capacity for material recovery at the conclusion of its lifecycle. The building’s façade serves to demonstrate that the deliberate utilisation of wood can yield an aesthetically pleasing, durable, and environmentally sustainable outcome.

The design of the kindergarten in Michałowice (Figure 4c) serves as a prime example of eco-friendly architecture, wherein the utilisation of wood as a primary facade material is of paramount significance. The facades are composed of chemically untreated spruce wood sourced from certified Polish plantations, ensuring the sustainability of the timber and the credibility of its origin. The surfaces are protected with natural vegetable oil, which has a low VOC content. This ensures the preservation of vapor permeability, thus allowing the wood to age naturally. The facade boards are mounted in a ventilated system, with the boards being positioned vertically. The utilisation of concealed, adhesive-free connectors facilitates their dismantling and subsequent recycling. The facade is complemented by wooden shutters and climbing plants, which provide additional sun protection and reduce the need for cooling. The project has been developed in accordance with the principles of circular architecture. The utilisation of highly processed materials has been eschewed, with each element of the façade being designed with durability, replaceability and low environmental impact in mind. The utilisation of wood in this project is multifaceted, serving not only an aesthetic purpose but also a technological and educational function.

5. Conclusions

The analysis facilitated the capture of the multidimensional nature of contemporary wooden architecture. This revealed not only its environmental potential, but also its cultural, technological and social aspects, which have hitherto been insufficiently recognised. A categorisation of fifteen design problems, based on levels of recognition, was indicative of an imbalance in the development of knowledge. This imbalance manifested as a coexistence of an extensive normative and engineering apparatus with a paucity of research in the domains of cultural, perceptual and systemic design.

In the contemporary context, wooden architecture signifies more than a mere series of technical solutions, encompassing considerations such as energy efficiency, fire safety, and life cycle assessment. It also serves as a conduit for the emergence of novel aesthetic, symbolic, and material expressions of local identity. In numerous instances, its function transcends the designation of an “alternative” to concrete, metamorphosing into a proposition for a systemic transformation in the language of design. Issues such as social acceptance, narrative durability, and upcycling potential are not marginal but central to future scenarios for a sustainable built environment.

5.1. Theoretical and Design Conclusions

The extant research demonstrates the necessity for a novel epistemology of wooden architecture. In this paradigm, wood is no longer considered a mere raw material, but rather an interface between nature and culture, heritage and technology. The following proposal is put forward for consideration: wooden architecture should be understood as:

• A multiscale medium—capable of creating both functional and narrative (symbolic, sensory, communal) structures;
• An integration platform—combining digital technologies (generativity, traceability, prefabrication) with local know-how and low-tech systems;
• A political design tool—capable of redefining public space through inclusive, economical, and community-based forms;
• An ecological design matrix—supporting long-term design (durability, adaptability) and short-cycle design (temporariness, reuse) as equally important models.

It is therefore important to consider wood not only in relation to its environmental impact, but also to acknowledge its significant conceptual and political implications.

5.2. Implementation Conclusions and Recommendations for Practice

In the context of design practice and spatial policies, the authors propose a shift in strategy from the micro level (material solutions) to the meso and macro levels. In this paradigm, wood functions as a catalyst for broader changes in the organisation of investment processes and architectural culture:

• Implementation of material passport mechanisms for wooden components—integrated with digital traceability systems, enabling circular and adaptable design;
• Institutionalization of temporary wood architecture as a fully-fledged urban planning tool—in response to migration crises, climate change, and temporary urbanization;
• New models of partnership between designers, craftsmen, and the social sector—for the creation of structures based on local resources and knowledge, rather than exclusively industrial prefabrication;
• Strengthening the role of material aesthetics and the perception of wood in architectural evaluation systems—taking into account mental well-being, tactile experience, and microclimate quality.

5.3. Research Perspectives

This analysis indicates a pressing necessity for the development of novel research domains that acknowledge the complexity of wood as both a cultural and a design medium:

• Empirical research on the impact of wood materiality on well-being, spatial perception, and social trust in the built environment;
• Modeling scenarios of adaptability and cultural footprint, not just carbon footprint, using mixed methods and qualitative data;
• Development of design-led research methodologies in the context of wood upcycling and generative detail design;
• Introduction of “narrative sustainability” criteria for assessing the quality of wooden architecture designs, including locality, ritual, and identity.

It is evident that wooden architecture is subject to technological transformation, thus becoming a pivotal element in the redefining of the meaning and purpose of architecture in an era characterised by post-growth and planetary crisis.