Microstructure, Solidification Texture, and Thermal Stability of 316 L Stainless Steel Manufactured by Laser Powder Bed Fusion
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Microstructure: Colonies, Epitaxial Nucleation, Cellular Dendritic Structure, and Nanoparticles
3.2. Influence of Solidification Conditions on Microstructure and Microsegregation
3.3. Solidification Texture
3.4. Mechanical Properties
3.5. Thermal Stability
4. Conclusions
- As-built microstructure in AM 316 L consists of colonies of cells. Boundaries between cells are not regular high-angle grain boundaries, but rather, dislocation structures of 100–300 nm in thickness.
- The size of the cells in the colonies depends on the manufacturing conditions and may vary even within a single track. The segregation of elements on the cell boundaries is presumably a function of the solidification conditions, and it may vary in AM 316 L manufactured at different laser powers and scanning speeds.
- Primary cell spacing is the key parameter that controls strength, following the Hall–Petch relationship. In many cases, deviations from the Hall–Petch relationship can be explained by variations of the primary cell spacing through the LPBF material and porosity.
- Solidification texture is formed by colonies that grew through several layers. The texture was controlled by the manufacturing strategy. This phenomenon provides an opportunity to design the microstructure and anisotropy in the final LPBF 316 L component.
- Cells within colonies are stable up to 800–900 °C, after that they disappear. The disappearance of cells directly results in a decrease in hardness. Colony growth was not significant until 1050 °C.
- Nanoscale oxide particles probably form from surface oxide, or due to oxygen pick up during manufacturing. They are stable and do not coalesce or change shape after heat treatment up to 1050 °C. The contribution of these nanoscale particles to hardness of LPBF 316 L material seems to be insignificant, since after heat treatment the hardness of LPBF 316 L steel approached values typical for conventional coarse-grained material.
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Krakhmalev, P.; Fredriksson, G.; Svensson, K.; Yadroitsev, I.; Yadroitsava, I.; Thuvander, M.; Peng, R. Microstructure, Solidification Texture, and Thermal Stability of 316 L Stainless Steel Manufactured by Laser Powder Bed Fusion. Metals 2018, 8, 643. https://doi.org/10.3390/met8080643
Krakhmalev P, Fredriksson G, Svensson K, Yadroitsev I, Yadroitsava I, Thuvander M, Peng R. Microstructure, Solidification Texture, and Thermal Stability of 316 L Stainless Steel Manufactured by Laser Powder Bed Fusion. Metals. 2018; 8(8):643. https://doi.org/10.3390/met8080643
Chicago/Turabian StyleKrakhmalev, Pavel, Gunnel Fredriksson, Krister Svensson, Igor Yadroitsev, Ina Yadroitsava, Mattias Thuvander, and Ru Peng. 2018. "Microstructure, Solidification Texture, and Thermal Stability of 316 L Stainless Steel Manufactured by Laser Powder Bed Fusion" Metals 8, no. 8: 643. https://doi.org/10.3390/met8080643