Mechanical Properties and in Vivo Assessment of Electron Beam Melted Porous Structures for Orthopedic Applications
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Design and Fabrication of Porous Scaffolds
2.3. Measurement and Characterization
2.4. Mechanical Testing
2.5. In Vivo Assessment
3. Results
3.1. Morphological Characterization
3.2. Mechanical Properties
3.3. In Vivo Assessment of Porous Structures
4. Discussion
4.1. The Effect of Size and Boundary Conditions on the Mechanical Properties
4.2. The Effect of Porous Geometry on the In Vivo Performances
- (a)
- Radially oriented pore geometry. A radially oriented pore can integrate the surrounding tissue better than a random pore. Additionally, at the same time, cells can migrate deeper into the porous structures, so capillaries can grow deeper with less barrier. Moreover, a mixed tissue of fiber and fibrocartilage can be formed in porous structures with radially oriented pores, while only fibrous tissue can be formed in porous structures with irregular pores. Generally, the radially oriented pores can facilitate cell ingrowth, longitudinal alignment of cells, and integration with the surrounding tissue, and may be suitable for in vivo applications [41]. Similar findings were also discussed in the research of Matsugaki [42] and Ishimoto [43]. They designed a honeycomb tree structure with through-pores and a grooved substrate for the spinal cages. Such a grooved through-pore structure was similar to the radially oriented pore geometry in our study. It was found in their research that such a through-pore honeycomb tree structure provided a direct scaffold that guided the bone matrix in its collagen and apatite orientation. Besides, such a design also exhibited greater strength at the bone interface compared with that of conventional and gold-standard box-type designs with autologous iliac bone grafts [42,43]. These findings can also prove the advantages of radially oriented pore geometry on bone ingrowth.
- (b)
- Homogenous pore size distribution. Porous structures with a high number of homogenous pore sizes allow faster colonization. Heterogeneous pore size distribution may also allow cell colonization, although the higher proportion of low pore size may reduce the diffusion of nutrients, oxygen, and cellular waste [44].
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Guo, A.X.; Cheng, L.; Zhan, S.; Zhang, S.; Xiong, W.; Wang, Z.; Wang, G.; Cao, S.C. Biomedical applications of the powder-based 3D printed titanium alloys: A review. J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 2022, 125, 252–264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schieker, M.; Mutschler, W. Bridging posttraumatic bony defects: Established and new methods. Unfallchirurg 2006, 109, 715–732. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hussain, M.; Askari Rizvi, S.H.; Abbas, N.; Sajjad, U.; Shad, M.R.; Badshah, M.A.; Malik, A.I. Recent developments in coatings for orthopedic metallic implants. Coatings 2021, 11, 791. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kowalski, S.; Gonciarz, W.; Belka, R.; Góral, A.; Chmiela, M.; Lechowicz, Ł.; Kaca, W.; Żórawski, W. Plasma-Sprayed Hydroxyapatite Coatings and Their Biological Properties. Coatings 2022, 12, 1317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Soballe, K.; Hansen, E.S.; Brockstedt-Rasmussen, H.; Bunger, C. Hydroxyapatite coating converts fibrous tissue to bone around loaded implants. J. Bone Jt. Surg. Br. 1993, 75, 270–278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ferraris, S.; Spriano, S. Porous titanium by additive manufacturing: A focus on surfaces for bone integration. Metals 2021, 11, 1343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ferraris, S.; Warchomicka, F.; Ramskogler, C.; Tortello, M.; Cochis, A.; Scalia, A.; di Confiengo, G.G.; Keckes, J.; Rimondini, L.; Spriano, S. Surface structuring by Electron Beam for improved soft tissues adhesion and reduced bacterial contamination on Ti-grade 2. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2019, 266, 518–529. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Akshaya, S.; Rowlo, P.K.; Dukle, A.; Nathanael, A.J. Antibacterial Coatings for Titanium Implants: Recent Trends and Future Perspectives. Antibiotics 2022, 11, 1719. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hoskins, W.; Rainbird, S.; Holder, C.; Graves, S.E.; Bingham, R. Revision for aseptic loosening of highly porous acetabular components in primary total hip arthroplasty: An analysis of 20,993 total hip replacements. J. Arthroplast. 2022, 37, 312–315. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Niinomi, M. Recent metallic materials for biomedical applications. Metall. Mater. Trans. A 2002, 33, 477–486. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sharif Ullah, A.M.M. Design for additive manufacturing of porous structures using stochastic point-cloud: A pragmatic approach. Comput.-Aided Des. Appl. 2018, 15, 138–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, T.; Xie, D.; Li, Z.; Zhu, H. Recent advances in wearable tactile sensors: Materials, sensing mechanisms, and device performance. Mater. Sci. Eng. R Rep. 2017, 115, 1–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lei, H.; Yi, T.; Fan, H.; Pei, X.; Wu, L.; Xing, F.; Li, M.; Liu, L.; Zhou, C.; Fan, Y.; et al. Customized additive manufacturing of porous Ti6Al4V scaffold with micro-topological structures to regulate cell behavior in bone tissue engineering. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 2021, 120, 111789. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Samourides, A.; Browning, L.; Hearnden, V.; Chen, B. The effect of porous structure on the cell proliferation, tissue ingrowth and angiogenic properties of poly (glycerol sebacate urethane) scaffolds. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 2020, 108, 110384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Leong, K.F.; Cheah, C.M.; Chua, C.K. Solid freeform fabrication of three-dimensional scaffolds for engineering replacement tissues and organs. Biomaterials 2003, 24, 2363–2378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Davoodi, E.; Montazerian, H.; Khademhosseini, A.; Toyserkani, E. Sacrificial 3D printing of shrinkable silicone elastomers for enhanced feature resolution in flexible tissue scaffolds. Acta Biomater. 2020, 117, 261–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chu, C.; Graf, G.; Rosen, D.W. Design for additive manufacturing of cellular structures. Comput.-Aided Des. Appl. 2008, 5, 686–696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Giannitelli, S.M.; Accoto, D.; Trombetta, M.; Rainer, A. Current trends in the design of scaffolds for computer-aided tissue engineering. Acta Biomater. 2014, 10, 580–594. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, X.; Xu, S.; Zhou, S.; Xu, W.; Leary, M.; Choong, P.; Qian, M.; Brandt, M.; Xie, Y.M. Topological design and additive manufacturing of porous metals for bone scaffolds and orthopaedic implants: A review. Biomaterials 2016, 83, 127–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Simoneau, C.; Brailovski, V.; Terriault, P. Design, manufacture and tensile properties of stochastic porous metallic structures. Mech. Mater. 2016, 94, 26–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ghouse, S.; Babu, S.; Nai, K.; Hooper, P.A.; Jeffers, J.R. The influence of laser parameters, scanning strategies and material on the fatigue strength of a stochastic porous structure. Addit. Manuf. 2018, 22, 290–301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, N.; Gao, L.; Zhou, K. Simple method to generate and fabricate stochastic porous scaffolds. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 2015, 56, 444–450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, Z.; Su, Z.; Ma, S.; Wu, X.; Luo, Z. Biomimetic modeling and three-dimension reconstruction of the artificial bone. Comput. Meth. Prog. Biomed. 2007, 88, 123–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Geng, X.; Li, Y.; Li, F.; Wang, X.; Zhang, K.; Liu, Z.; Tian, H. A new 3D printing porous trabecular titanium metal acetabular cup for primary total hip arthroplasty: A minimum 2-year follow-up of 92 consecutive patients. J. Orthop. Surg. Res. 2020, 15, 383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dall’Ava, L.; Hothi, H.; Henckel, J.; Di Laura, A.; Shearing, P.; Hart, A. Comparative analysis of current 3D printed acetabular titanium implants. 3D Print Med. 2019, 5, 15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yang, J.; Cai, H.; Lv, J.; Zhang, K.; Leng, H.; Sun, C.; Wang, Z.; Liu, Z. In vivo study of a self-stabilizing artificial vertebral body fabricated by electron beam melting. Spine 2014, 39, 486–492. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liang, H.; Yang, Y.; Xie, D.; Li, L.; Mao, N.; Wang, C.; Tian, Z.; Jiang, Q.; Shen, L. Trabecular-like Ti-6Al-4V scaffolds for orthopedic: Fabrication by selective laser melting and in vitro biocompatibility. J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 2019, 35, 1284–1297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Du, Y.; Liang, H.; Xie, D.; Mao, N.; Zhao, J.; Tian, Z.; Wang, C.; Shen, L. Design and statistical analysis of irregular porous scaffolds for orthopedic reconstruction based on voronoi tessellation and fabricated via selective laser melting (SLM). Mater. Chem. Phys. 2020, 239, 121968. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lei, H.Y.; Li, J.R.; Xu, Z.J.; Wang, Q.H. Parametric design of Voronoi-based lattice porous structures. Mater. Des. 2020, 191, 108607. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Deering, J.; Dowling, K.I.; DiCecco, L.A.; McLean, G.D.; Yu, B.; Grandfield, K. Selective Voronoi tessellation as a method to design anisotropic and biomimetic implants. J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 2021, 116, 104361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sharma, N.; Ostas, D.; Rotar, H.; Brantner, P.; Thieringer, F.M. Design and additive manufacturing of a biomimetic customized cranial implant based on voronoi diagram. Front. Physiol. 2021, 12, 647923. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Efstathiadis, A.; Symeonidou, I.; Tsongas, K.; Tzimtzimis, E.K.; Tzetzis, D. Parametric Design and Mechanical Characterization of 3D-Printed PLA Composite Biomimetic Voronoi Lattices Inspired by the Stereom of Sea Urchins. J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 7, 3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, G.; Shen, L.; Zhao, J.; Liang, H.; Xie, D.; Tian, Z.; Wang, C. Design and compressive behavior of controllable irregular porous scaffolds: Based on voronoi-tessellation and for additive manufacturing. ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng. 2018, 4, 719–727. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhao, Z.; Li, J.; Yao, D.; Wei, Y. Mechanical and permeability properties of porous scaffolds developed by a Voronoi tessellation for bone tissue engineering. J. Mater. Chem. B 2022, 10, 9699–9712. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gibson, L.J. Cellular solids. Mrs Bull. 2003, 28, 270–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ashby, M.F.; Medalist, R.M. The mechanical properties of cellular solids. Metall. Trans. A 1983, 14, 1755–1769. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Morgan, E.F.; Bayraktar, H.H.; Keaveny, T.M. Trabecular bone modulus–density relationships depend on anatomic site. J. Biomech. 2003, 36, 897–904. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gu, X.N.; Zheng, Y.F. A review on magnesium alloys as biodegradable materials. Front. Mater. Sci. China 2010, 4, 111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wu, Y.; Yang, L. Elastic and failure characteristics of additive manufactured thin wall lattice structures with defects. Thin-Walled Struct. 2021, 161, 107493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wu, Y.; Yang, L. The effect of unit cell size and topology on tensile failure behavior of 2D lattice structures. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 2020, 170, 105342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brouwer, K.M.; Daamen, W.F.; van Lochem, N.; Reijnen, D.; Wijnen, R.M.; van Kuppevelt, T.H. Construction and in vivo evaluation of a dual layered collagenous scaffold with a radial pore structure for repair of the diaphragm. Acta Biomater. 2013, 9, 6844–6851. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Matsugaki, A.; Ito, M.; Kobayashi, Y.; Matsuzaka, T.; Ozasa, R.; Ishimoto, T.; Takahashi, H.; Watanabe, R.; Inoue, T.; Yokota, K.; et al. Innovative design of bone quality-targeted intervertebral spacer: Accelerated functional fusion guiding oriented collagen and apatite microstructure without autologous bone graft. J. Spine 2023, 23, 609–620. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ishimoto, T.; Kobayashi, Y.; Takahata, M.; Ito, M.; Matsugaki, A.; Takahashi, H.; Watanabe, R.; Inoue, T.; Matsuzaka, T.; Ozasa, R.; et al. Outstanding in vivo mechanical integrity of additively manufactured spinal cages with a novel “honeycomb tree structure” design via guiding bone matrix orientation. J. Spine 2022, 22, 1742–1757. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Perez, R.A.; Mestres, G. Role of pore size and morphology in musculo-skeletal tissue regeneration. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 2016, 61, 922–939. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Al | Fe | V | C | N | H | O | Ti |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
6.08 | 0.10 | 3.98 | 0.012 | 0.0069 | 0.0018 | 0.105 | Bal. |
Design | Abrasive Mass (mg) | Tensile Strength (MPa) | Shear Strength (MPa) |
---|---|---|---|
Voronoi structure | 3.83 ± 2.89 | 169.29 ± 7.06 | 86.08 ± 2.65 |
Randomized dodecahedron | 23.23 ± 3.46 | 62.72 ± 6.87 | 53.32 ± 3.87 |
Design | Month 1 | Month 3 | Month 6 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dog #1 | Dog #2 | Dog #3 | Dog #4 | Dog #5 | Dog #6 | Dog #7 | Dog #8 | Dog #9 | |
Voronoi structure | 10.54 | 19.31 | 2.47 | 14.65 | 11.3 | 12.85 | 8.38 | 6.03 | 7.56 |
Randomized structure | 5.58 | 7.93 | 2.17 | 6.97 | 8.3 | 7.2 | 0.05 | 5.94 | 9.81 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Wu, Y.; Wang, Y.; Liu, M.; Shi, D.; Hu, N.; Feng, W. Mechanical Properties and in Vivo Assessment of Electron Beam Melted Porous Structures for Orthopedic Applications. Metals 2023, 13, 1034. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13061034
Wu Y, Wang Y, Liu M, Shi D, Hu N, Feng W. Mechanical Properties and in Vivo Assessment of Electron Beam Melted Porous Structures for Orthopedic Applications. Metals. 2023; 13(6):1034. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13061034
Chicago/Turabian StyleWu, Yan, Yudong Wang, Mengxing Liu, Dufang Shi, Nan Hu, and Wei Feng. 2023. "Mechanical Properties and in Vivo Assessment of Electron Beam Melted Porous Structures for Orthopedic Applications" Metals 13, no. 6: 1034. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13061034