The Role of Ethnic Identity, Perceived Social Support, and Maladaptive Perfectionism in the Self-Esteem of Immigrant Asian Indian University Students

Abstract

Existing research on factors associated with self-esteem and the subsequent risk of mental health disorders among immigrant Indian university students has largely focused on the US immigrant population. To address this gap, the present study surveyed immigrant university students in the UAE. While previous studies have independently linked ethnic identity, perceived social support, and maladaptive perfectionism to self-esteem, this study is the first to examine these associations within a new geographical context. The study hypothesized that (i) ethnic identity would predict self-esteem, (ii) perceived social support would positively predict self-esteem, and (iii) maladaptive perfectionism would negatively predict self-esteem. The final regression model explained 35% of the variance in self-esteem, and the findings were in line with the hypotheses. These findings can help highlight the potential relevance of ethnic identity, social support, and maladaptive perfectionism in understanding variations in self-esteem among immigrant Indian university students. However, the study has limitations, including its cross-sectional and correlational nature. Further studies may reveal culturally embedded patterns warranting investigation through longitudinal or experimental research.

1. Introduction

Despite a growing body of research on the mental health vulnerabilities of immigrants, studies focusing on the South Asian immigrant population remain limited in both scope and depth [1]. In particular, research on Asian Indian immigrants outside the Western context is scarce. Existing literature indicates that immigrants from ethnic minority groups face a heightened risk of mental health disorders as compared to compatriots who did not migrate as well as natives of the host country they migrate to [2,3]. Within this population, university students are especially susceptible to mental health issues due to unique psychosocial stressors, including academic pressure, self-esteem issues, financial difficulties, limited social support, and barriers to mental health services [4]. A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies by Sowislo and Orth [5] revealed that low self-esteem is a significant predictor of depression and anxiety, in line with the vulnerability model of self-esteem. The current study refers to global self-esteem as ‘self-esteem’ and it can be defined as the overall positive or negative evaluation of oneself [6]. Therefore, it is likely that challenges of sociocultural and psychological adaptation faced by immigrant students can negatively influence self-esteem and compromise their well-being, potentially leading to negative mental health outcomes. However, strong social support can serve as a crucial protective factor in mitigating these risks [7].

An essential theme in previous psychological literature inextricably tied to migration and immigrant mental health is acculturation. According to Berry [8], acculturation is a process by which ethnic minorities adapt to the dominant culture and modify their existing behaviour, attitudes and beliefs to fit in. Acculturation occurs during prolonged contact with another culture as in the case of immigration. A closely linked concept to acculturation is ethnic identity. Ethnic identity consists of an individual’s sense of belonging to their ethnic group, attitudes towards ethnic group members, feelings and involvement with their cultural beliefs and practices [9]. The role played by ethnic identity in the self-esteem of Indian immigrant students can be understood through the lens of social identity theory wherein individual self-esteem is possibly enhanced by ethnic group membership, particularly when that ethnicity’s culture is valued and recognized by the other co-existing cultures [10]. This theory can be supplemented by the self-construal theory and the dimension of individualism-collectivism of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory [11,12]. The self-construal of Markus & Kitayama’s theory is directly related to self-concept. However, self-esteem is an important component of self-concept, suggesting that it could be influenced by whether individuals possess an independent self-construal or an interdependent self-construal [13]. The basis and maintenance of self-esteem for interdependent individuals would be group harmony and associations with others, which have larger implications in relation to ethnic identity and acculturation [12,14]. The self-construal of Indian immigrant students from a collectivistic background who are subsequently exposed to another collectivistic culture of Arabs in the UAE is more likely to be interdependent. This is evidenced by a study conducted on Indian immigrants in Greece, which is predominantly collectivistic, where they scored higher on the interdependent self-construal [15]. Consequently, the maintenance of self-esteem of Indian immigrant students with an interdependent self-construal could be impacted by their ethnic identity and acculturation process.

Balidemaj & Small [3] summarized previous literature that states that higher levels of identification with ethnic identity have been linked to better psychological well-being among immigrants. However, it is crucial to note that during acculturation, acculturative stress is commonly experienced by immigrants [1]. According to Karasz et al.’s [1] literature review, acculturative stress can be defined as the stress resulting from the processes involved in adjusting to the host country’s culture that generally differs from one’s own cultural traits. This can include discrimination, intergenerational conflict and depression, especially among South Asian immigrants. Even among international students belonging to ethnic minorities, acculturative stress has been linked to depression [16]. A recent meta-analysis conducted by Çimşir & Kaynakçı [17] also reported a significant and positive association between acculturative stress and depressive symptoms in international university students, including Asian Indians. Differences in self-esteem can also be linked to ethnicity, as a previous study revealed that the variability in self-esteem of Black Americans was significantly related to their ethnicity, unlike their White counterparts [18]. Recently, Umaña-Taylor [19] has found that ascribing a positive or negative valence to ethnic racial identity (ERI) does affect the adjustment of individuals; in particular, a negative ERI may pose an identity risk and low self-esteem.

During acculturation, perceived social support plays a crucial role in shaping self-concept, fostering positive life experiences, and mitigating the effects of discrimination and loneliness. Consistent with the sociometer theory that self-esteem is reflected by the extent of social acceptance or rejection, studies on Indian immigrant students’ mental health have shown that the belonging aspect of social support is predictive of well-being [7]. Levels of social support can depend on how well immigrants have acculturated to the host culture. Research has consistently shown that an integration strategy—where individuals maintain both their heritage and host cultures—leads to the most successful adaptation outcomes, whereas marginalization, or failing to identify with either culture, is the least adaptive [8]. This aligns with findings by Ng et al. [20], which indicate that social support from local friends enhances integration into the foreign culture while also serving as a protective buffer against marginalization. However, as noted by Sam & Berry [21], the quality and continuity of support depend on the host culture’s values and receptivity. Tanaka et al. [22] found that local support for international students in Japan may initially ease adjustment in practical terms but can be short-lived, leading to loneliness and social isolation over time. Therefore, while local social support can promote integration, its long-term effectiveness depends on whether it develops into sustained, meaningful social relationships. Reitz et al. [23], testing the sociometer theory, found that immigrants’ self-esteem is associated with their ingroup popularity more than outgroup popularity. An adolescent-based study by Fernández-Zabala [24] found that sociometric popularity is positively linked to self-concept through perceived social support from peers. Therefore, this could imply that perceived social support from members of the same ethnic group is crucial to immigrants’ self-concept and, relatedly, to their self-esteem. Furthermore, the integration strategy was linked to higher self-esteem and lower depressive symptoms among South Asian youth in Australia and Canada [25,26,27].

Within perceived social support, the lack of family support, which is traditionally valued in Indian culture since it is collectivistic in nature, could be a risk factor for depression. In the US, which has an individualistic culture, Roysircar et al. [28] reported generational differences in communication difficulties with parents and self-critical perfectionism, indicating higher levels for both in US-born second-generation than foreign-born first-generation Indian youth. This aligns with prior research findings of higher depression rates among Indian immigrant youth. When there is a communication disruption with parents, it can signify low family support and, combined with maladaptive perfectionism, contribute to elevated depression levels. Other than family support, in Australia, risk factors for psychological distress in migrant Indians included being unmarried and having less contact with friends, indicating the important role of support from significant others and friends in individuals’ lives [29]. Family support can either serve as a protective factor against mental health problems or as a barrier to seeking psychological help, particularly when mental health issues are often stigmatized and support is mostly sought from within family or social circles—common in collectivistic cultures—instead of professionals [30].

Previous research has reported that around 91% of Indian migrants in Australia with discernible mental health issues did not attempt to seek help, and the major barriers constituted socioeconomic problems, language barriers, inadequate social support and lack of culture-sensitive psychological support services [31]. Similar trends have been outlined in research conducted on Indian immigrants in Canada [32], the US [33] and the UK [34]. A recent systematic review revealed that the consistent lack of seeking mental health support seen in South Asian migrants living in high-income countries could be explained by their tendency to lean towards a psychosocial explanation for common mental health disorders and prevalent stigma—public and self [30].

The protective impact of strong ethnic identity and high perceived social support on self-esteem warrants further exploration. A significant relationship between these factors may contribute to greater psychological well-being and a reduced risk of mental health disorders. Evidence for this was found in a study of Latinas, where it was discovered that a greater identification with Mexican ethnic identity and greater perceived social support, especially from family, significantly predicted life satisfaction and positive affect [35]. Nepalese adolescents who experienced higher social support had higher self-esteem and better psychological well-being [36]. With reference to lowering the risk and impact of mental health disorders, high self-esteem and perceived social support were found to be protective of Nepalese adolescents against substance abuse and suicidal behaviour [37]. For Chinese adolescents, it was found that parental and peer support had an indirect effect on depression through the mediating effect of self-esteem. Therefore, increasing self-esteem through social support would be beneficial for the prevention and treatment of common mental health disorders like depression [38].

Maladaptive perfectionism, distinct from general perfectionism, is characterized by self-critical tendencies, where individuals feel they constantly fall short of their own high standards [39]. It is strongly linked to mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, and obsessive–compulsive disorder [40]. All three dimensions of self-oriented perfectionism and other-oriented perfectionism from Hewitt & Flett’s [41] multidimensional perfectionism model can be applied to the Indian immigrant context. The first dimension, ‘self-oriented perfectionism’, like self-critical perfectionism, has been found to be positively associated with depression in Indian immigrant students in the US, along with acculturative stress [16]. The second dimension, ‘other-oriented perfectionism’, can be conceptualized as family perfectionism in which Indian immigrant parents expect perfectionism from their children, and this is quite common and has also been found to exacerbate acculturative stress [42]. Family perfectionism often stems from cultural values, internalized shame, and high parental expectations, particularly in academics [43]. For instance, family perfectionism was categorized into three types—maladaptive, adaptive and non-perfectionistic—of which research has revealed that Asian international students from maladaptive perfectionistic families were more likely to experience higher levels of depression, anxiety and suicidal ideation [44]. An additional point of relevance is the link between collectivism and perfectionism that is evident through Walton et al.’s [45] study in which Middle Eastern university students, belonging to a collectivistic culture, were found to experience higher self-oriented perfectionism and parental expectations than university students from the US having an individualistic culture. In the Indian context, Kaur and Kaur’s [46] study, grounded in Frost’s perfectionism theory, found that Indians in India scored higher on parental expectations, while NRIs in the US exhibited greater concern over mistakes. This may suggest that collectivist environments reinforce externally imposed perfectionism, whereas exposure to individualistic cultures fosters internalized self-criticism. The last dimension, ‘socially ascribed perfectionism’, can be linked to the model minority stereotype, as Indian immigrants may internalize this supposedly positive stereotype and hold themselves to higher standards of perfectionism since it is socially expected of them. Evidence pertaining to this was found in a study of first-generation and second-generation Indian immigrants in the US wherein the second generation perceived less prejudice as a model minority but reported higher perfectionism than their first-generation counterparts [28].

A combination of all three factors—ethnic identity, perceived social support, and maladaptive perfectionism—affecting mental health could be particularly relevant in the Asian Indian immigrant context as well. Since self-esteem has been closely associated with common mental health disorders in the past, it is beneficial to investigate whether these factors predict the construct of self-esteem. In the present study, self-esteem is conceptualized as a marker of positive psychological functioning and is therefore treated as the dependent variable.

2. Rationale and Hypothesis

According to the UN DESA Report [47], the number of international migrants has increased from 275 million in 2020 to 304 million in 2024. UAE consistently ranks among the top ten international destinations for migrants. Indians were reported to be the largest group of international migrants with an 18.5 million increase over the past 4 years, mostly distributed in the UAE, the US and Saudi Arabia. Indian expatriates typically migrate for better career prospects, living conditions, and education. Based on the World Migration Report [48], the migration rate from India to the United Arab Emirates remains higher than that from India to the United States. Asian Indian migration has steadily increased over the past few decades, yet most research focuses on Indian immigrants in the United States [33]. This highlights the need for research and investigations into this population, especially Asian Indian immigrant students, due to multiple stressors and their increased susceptibility to mental health issues [4].

Students from India rank second in terms of international mobility, migrating to high-income countries like the US, UK, Australia, Germany, and Canada [48]. The UAE, home to the world’s highest expatriate-to-native population ratio [49], also has a large Indian expatriate community, with many students choosing to pursue higher education there [50]. Given that reverse migration is rare and most Indian expatriates remain in the UAE long-term, this study refers to them as “immigrant Indian students” [51]. Previous research has focused on Asian Indian immigrants as an ethnic minority. However, in this study, which is conducted in the UAE, Indians are the ethnic majority compared to the Emiratis’ host culture. Moreover, Indian immigrants who are from a collectivistic culture are researched within the UAE, which is also considered to be predominantly collectivistic, as opposed to previous literature based in the WEIRD context where Indian immigrant experiences in individualistic cultures like the US were examined [33,52].

Despite the wealth of research that focuses on acculturation in relation to the self-esteem and well-being of immigrants, this study chose to study the link between ethnic identity and self-esteem, as acculturation typically takes place where the ethnic minority of immigrants adapts to the dominant culture of the host country. However, in the case of the UAE, it is difficult to establish whether acculturation has occurred when the Indian population is largely considered migrants or expatriates despite long-term stays [49]. The fact that they are an ethnic majority and there is no citizenship pathway suggests a lack of need to integrate themselves with the Emirati culture. Moreover, there are no culturally adapted acculturation scales to study this population in the Gulf context. Ethnic identity is a more salient feature than acculturation since the UAE promotes multiculturalism and there is less pressure to assimilate into Emirati culture; thus, self-esteem is more likely to be shaped by how strongly immigrant students identify with their ethnic group rather than how much they have adapted to Emirati culture.

While existing literature focuses on Asian Indian immigrants in the US, ethnic identity can have varying importance and meaning for the members of the same ethnic group depending on the geographical context [53]. Research by Shah et al. [54] suggests that immigrant adolescents in the UAE also face a heightened risk of mental health disorders and low self-esteem. However, the interplay between ethnic identity, perceived social support, maladaptive perfectionism, and self-esteem among immigrant Asian Indian university students remains unexplored. This study aims to fill that gap. The present study examines self-esteem among immigrant Asian Indian university students in the UAE—an under-researched population—while also validating findings from previous studies conducted in other countries.

The following hypotheses were constructed for this study,

Hypothesis 1:

Identification with ethnic identity will predict the self-esteem of immigrant Asian Indian university students.

Hypothesis 2:

Perceived social support will positively predict the self-esteem of immigrant Asian Indian university students.

Hypothesis 3:

Maladaptive perfectionism will negatively predict the self-esteem of immigrant Asian Indian university students.

3. Method

3.1. Participants

This study recruited 105 students (16 males, 89 females) from a university in Dubai, aged 18–25. Participants were selected through convenience sampling via an online Qualtrics survey, the university’s Research Participation Scheme (RPS), and offline advertisements. Eligibility criteria required participants to be Asian Indian immigrants (or expatriates) and residing in the UAE for at least six months. Individuals with diagnosed mental health conditions were excluded.

3.2. Design

The quantitative study employed a correlational design. The three predictor variables were ‘ethnic identity’, ‘perceived social support’, and ‘maladaptive perfectionism’, whose potential relationship to the outcome variable ‘self-esteem’ was examined.

3.3. Materials

Self-report questionnaires were used to collect data. Demographic questions included age range, gender, country of residence (UAE or other), number of years lived in a foreign country, level of education, religion and primary language spoken. Data collection for the four variables—ethnic identity, perceived social support, maladaptive perfectionism and self-esteem—was done using the following self-report questionnaires.

3.4. Ethnic Identity Scale (EIS) [55]

To measure the identification with Asian Indian ethnic identity, the Ethnic Identity Scale was administered. It is a 4-point Likert scale with response options ‘does not describe me at all’, ‘describes me a little’, ‘describes me well’ and ‘describes me very well’. Sample items include ‘I feel negatively about my ethnicity’, ‘I have participated in activities that have exposed me to my ethnicity’ and ‘I wish I were of a different ethnicity’. For each item, a score of 1 indicates low identification with one’s ethnic identity, while a score of 4 indicates high identification. Items 1, 2, 7, 9, 10, 13 and 16 were negatively worded, so they were reverse-scored.

EIS comprises 17 items with three sub-scales: ‘Affirmation’, ‘Exploration’ and ‘Resolution’. The three dimensions have high reliability with Cronbach’s alpha values of 0.86, 0.91 and 0.92, respectively [56]. The EIS has high construct validity for the ‘Exploration’ and ‘Affirmation’ sub-scales. Intercorrelations among the 3 sub-scales, a self-esteem scale and a familial ethnic socialization scale yielded significant results in the original study. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the three-factor structure of the scale for minorities with χ2 (17, n = 289) = 309.36, p < 0.05, CFI = 0.95, CRMR = 0.078, and RMSEA = 0.094 [56]. For this sample, Cronbach’s alpha was 0.89, and scores ranged from 32 to 68. The scale has demonstrated cultural validity in prior research among Indian immigrant students in the US [53].

3.5. Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) [57]

Perceived social support was measured using the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support. MSPSS is a 12-item, 7-point Likert scale with sub-scales ‘Significant Other’, ‘Family’ and ‘Friends’. Response options ranged from ‘very strongly disagree’ to ‘very strongly agree’. MSPSS comprises items such as ‘I have a special person who is a real source of comfort to me’, ‘My family really tries to help me’ and ‘I can talk about my problems with my friends’. For each item, a score of 1 indicates low perceived social support from significant others or family or friends, and a score of 7 indicates high perceived social support for the same, depending on the sub-scale.

MSPSS has high overall internal consistency with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.88. Cronbach alpha values for the sub-scales were 0.91 for ‘Significant Other’, 0.87 for ‘Family’ and 0.85 for ‘Friends’. The test–retest reliability was found to be 0.85 for the whole scale and 0.72, 0.85 and 0.75 for each of the sub-scales. Confirmatory factor analysis provided support for the 3 factors, and construct validity was evidenced by MSPSS being negatively correlated to the anxiety and depression sub-scales of the Hopkins Symptoms Checklist, r = −0.25, p < 0.01 [57]. For this sample, Cronbach’s alpha was 0.94, and scores ranged from 12 to 84. MSPSS has been previously tested on an Indian student sample and yielded consistent results, although this is not representative of an Indian immigrant student sample [58].

3.6. The Revised Version of the Almost Perfect Scale (APS-R) [59]

APS-R measures maladaptive perfectionism. It is a 7-point Likert scale measuring perfectionism, consisting of 23 items with response options ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’. It has three sub-scales: ‘Standards’, ‘Order’ and ‘Discrepancy’. ‘Standards’ refer to the high standards that individuals set for themselves, ‘Order’ refers to the preference for orderliness or neatness practiced in daily life while ‘Discrepancy’ refers to the constant feeling of being unable to meet expectations [59]. A high score on both ‘Standards’ and ‘Discrepancy’ sub-scales is indicative of maladaptive perfectionism. Example items from these two sub-scales include ‘I have high expectations for myself’, ‘I am hardly ever satisfied with my performance’ and ‘I try to do my best at everything I do’.

An exploratory analysis and multiple confirmatory factor analyses were run, and the final model was a good fit, χ2 (227, N = 204) = 459.22, p < 0.05; SRMR = 0.08; RMSEA = 0.07; CFI = 0.90 [60]. Reliability coefficients were 0.85 for Standards, 0.86 for Order and 0.92 for Discrepancy sub-scales. Research by Rice et al. [61] had revealed that scores on ‘the Standards’ sub-scale were an indicator of maladaptive perfectionism if ‘Discrepancy’ sub-scale scores were high or adaptive perfectionism if ‘Discrepancy’ sub-scale scores were low. The APS-R literature has previously conceptualized maladaptive perfectionists as having both high standards and high levels of discrepancy [60]. The current study has conceptualized maladaptive perfectionism as the coexistence of high standards and perceived failure to meet them. Therefore, computing the composite score of the ‘Standards’ and ‘Discrepancy’ sub-scales would ideally represent maladaptive perfectionism. For this sample, Cronbach’s alpha was 0.91, and scores ranged from 33 to 129 for the combination of Standards and Discrepancy sub-scales. A study applied APS-R to Indian immigrants in the US and reported consistent results that suggest cultural validity; however, it is not fully reflective of the Indian immigrant student sample [42].

3.7. Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) [6]

The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale was administered to participants to measure their self-esteem. It is a 4-point Likert scale with options ranging from ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree and has a total of 10 items. A few sample items are ‘On the whole, I am satisfied with myself’, ‘I feel I do not have much to be proud of’ and ‘I feel that I have a number of good qualities’. For each item, a score of 1 indicates low self-esteem and a score of 4 indicates high self-esteem. Negatively worded items 3, 5, 8, 9 and 10 were reverse scored.

RSES has adequate construct validity for UK university students, χ2 (35, N = 761) = 387.49, p < 0.01, CFI = 0.93; RMSEA = 0.08; and SRMR = 0.04 [62]. RSES has good internal consistency and reliability, with a Guttman coefficient of 0.92 and a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.81 [63]. For this sample, Cronbach’s alpha was 0.82, and scores ranged from 16 to 38. RSES has been shown to reliably capture self-esteem across diverse cultural groups, including Indians, but this does not reflect the Indian immigrant student sample [63].

4. Procedure

This study was approved by the university’s Human Research Ethics Committee. Participants were recruited through the university’s SONA Research Participation Scheme (RPS) and advertisements.

The survey, hosted on Qualtrics, took 15–20 min to complete. Data was anonymized using SONA IDs for RPS participants and randomized IDs for others. An information sheet was presented at the start and a debrief sheet at the end. Informed consent was obtained following British Psychological Society and university ethics guidelines, with participants free to withdraw at any time. Given the sensitivity of ethnic identity topics, participants with pre-existing mental health conditions were advised not to continue if uncomfortable.

Participants completed a demographic questionnaire followed by four measures assessing ethnic identity, maladaptive perfectionism, perceived social support, and self-esteem. If a participant wished to withdraw, they were redirected to the debrief sheet, which included study details and support resources. RPS participants earned 0.25 credits, while non-RPS participants received no compensation.

5. Results

Descriptive Statistics

The data was analyzed using SPSS version 29. Firstly, descriptive statistics tests were run. All participants responded to the age range of 18–25. A total of 138 participants completed the survey. 31 participants were excluded for not meeting the inclusion criteria, as they were not of Indian ethnicity and did not reside in the UAE. Outliers were identified using boxplots based on the 1.5 × IQR criterion. Four outliers were flagged, but only two were removed, since the SD exceeded 15 with those outliers present, indicating statistical extremity that would skew the results negatively. A sensitivity check comparing the analyses before and after case exclusion showed improved distributional characteristics and no substantive change in the overall pattern of findings. The final sample comprises 105 participants as reported in

Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the participants.

	n	%
Age of participants recorded	105	100
Gender
Male	16	15.2
Female	89	84.8

.

Maladaptive perfectionism was computed as the mean of the sum of both sub-scales ‘Standards’ and ‘Discrepancy’. On the histograms, data were normally distributed only for the outcome variable, self-esteem, while the predictor variables—ethnic identity, perceived social support and maladaptive perfectionism—were non-normal. When outliers were removed, the data became normally distributed for all variables.

6. Assumption Testing

Assumption tests for multiple linear regression were carried out. The assumption of linearity was met on examination of the scatterplot matrix for all variables involved in the study. Pearson’s correlation test was performed since the data were normally distributed. The correlational analysis revealed a statistically significant but small positive correlation between the predictor variables EI and PSS, r = 0.31. The outcome variable self-esteem was also found to have small, positive, significant correlations with all predictor variables, EI (r = 0.34), PSS (r = 0.51) and MP_SD (r = −0.35) as presented in

Table 2. Means, standard deviations and correlation matrix of variables used in the main regression analysis.

Variable	M	SD	1	2	3	4
Ethnic identity	52.16	9.17	-
Perceived social support	61.98	15.46	0.31 **	-
Maladaptive perfectionism	92.60	17.16	0.01	−0.09	-
Self-esteem	26.22	4.80	0.34 **	0.51 **	−0.35 *	-

Note. N = 105, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.

below.

Multicollinearity within the regression model was assessed using tolerance and variance inflation factor (VIF) statistics. Tolerance values ranged from 0.92 to 0.99 (above the standard threshold, t > 0.2), and VIF values ranged from 1.09 to 1.1 (below the standard threshold, VIF < 5), indicating that multicollinearity was not a concern. The independence of errors assumption was confirmed by the Durbin–Watson statistic (DW = 1.90). Another assumption of normality of errors was met according to the normal P-P plot of regression standardized residuals and normally distributed errors on the histogram for SE. Meanwhile, the graph plotted between standardized predicted values (ZPRED) and standardized residuals (ZRESID) showed that the assumption of homoscedasticity was met.

A stepwise multiple regression was conducted to explore whether identification with ethnic identity, perceived social support and maladaptive perfectionism predict the self-esteem of immigrant Indian university students. There were three significant regression models. Out of these, model 3, with the combination of perceived social support, ethnic identity and maladaptive perfectionism, predicted the most variance of 37.2%, while model 1, with perceived social support only, explained the most variance of 25.9% out of all other predictor variables. For the third model with all 3 IVs predicting self-esteem and explaining 37.2% variance, R² = 0.37, it was found to be statistically significant, F(3, 101) = 19.96, with p < 0.05. This combination of factors was a moderately good predictor of self-esteem. Adjusted R² = 0.35, indicated that, realistically, only 35% of the variance in self-esteem could be explained by this model. The final model demonstrated a good fit with the data (R = 0.61). From this model, perceived social support was the most significant predictor of self-esteem, B = 0.14, t(101) = 5.61, p < 0.05. This was followed by maladaptive perfectionism being a significant negative predictor of self-esteem, B = −0.08, t(101) = −3.63, p < 0.05 and another positive predictor, ethnic identity, B = 0.11, t(101) = 2.57, p < 0.05. The standardized beta coefficient values reported indicated that as perceived social support increased by one standard deviation, self-esteem increased by 0.46 (β = 0.46) and as identification with ethnic identity increased by one standard deviation, self-esteem increased by 0.21 (β = 0.21), whereas an increase in maladaptive perfectionism by one standard deviation resulted in a decrease in self-esteem by 0.29 (β = 0.29). The regression equation for the model was self-esteem = 18.97 + (perceived social support × 0.14) + (maladaptive perfectionism × −0.08) + (identification with ethnic identity × 0.11).

These results indicated that perceived social support, maladaptive perfectionism and ethnic identity significantly predict self-esteem in this sample. It was also noted that perceived social support could explain more variance in self-esteem than the other predictor variables. Moreover, self-esteem and maladaptive perfectionism were negatively correlated. It is, however, important to note that this was an exploratory analysis, and although the final model produced a good fit with the data, it cannot be generalized and requires further testing. The summary of the regression results is presented below in

Table 3. Main analysis regression results: predicting self-esteem.

				95%	CI
Variable	B	S.E	Sig.	LL	UL	β	t
Constant	18.970	2.995	<0.001	13.03	24.91		6.33
Perceived social support	0.14	0.026	<0.001	0.09	0.19	0.46 **	5.60
Maladaptive perfectionism	−0.08	0.022	<0.001	−0.12	−0.04	−0.29 **	−3.63
Ethnic identity	0.11	0.043	0.012	0.03	0.20	0.21 **	2.57

Note. N = 105, CI = Confidence Interval, S.E = Standard Error, ** p < 0.01.

and

Table 4. Main regression model summary.

R	R2	Adjusted R2	S.E	R2 Change	F Change	Sig.	DW
0.610	0.372	0.354	3.862	0.041	6.611	0.012 *	1.902

Note. N = 105, S.E = Standard Error of estimate, DW = Durbin–Watson statistic, * p < 0.05.

.

7. Discussion

This study investigated the associations between the three constructs of ethnic identity, perceived social support and maladaptive perfectionism with the self-esteem of Indian immigrant university students. Despite Indian immigrant students constituting an ethnic majority in the UAE, the data analysis revealed results that are in line with previous research on the factors affecting the self-esteem of immigrant Asian Indians in the US [7,33,42], Portugal [64], Greece [15], Canada [25], the UK [65], Australia [29] and the UAE [66]. The final regression model included all three predictor variables of ethnic identity, perceived social support, and maladaptive perfectionism, and they significantly predicted the outcome variable self-esteem. The findings are aligned with all three hypotheses. Although hypotheses were specified a priori, the use of a data-driven variable selection procedure (stepwise regression) introduces an exploratory element to the analysis and so the reported findings of this study should be interpreted as exploratory and hypothesis-generating rather than strictly confirmatory.

First of all, identifying with their ethnic identity of being Asian Indian positively predicted the self-esteem of Indian university students in the UAE. This supports earlier research findings of a higher identification and sense of belonging to their ethnicity being associated with higher self-esteem and better coping against racial discrimination of Indian immigrants in the US [67]. Therefore, it may be inferred that the influence of ethnic identity on Indian university students’ self-esteem is applicable to broader cultural contexts beyond the US if future causal research produces similar findings.

The second hypothesis was supported by the results, with perceived social support showing a moderate positive correlation with the self-esteem of immigrant Indian university students. This finding adds to the body of prior research that suggests perceived social support from family and friends is associated with higher self-esteem among university students [68] and adolescents [69]. Parikh [70] noted that familial social support greatly influenced the subjective well-being and self-esteem of Asian Indian immigrants in the US. This is in line with results from additional analyses conducted in the present study, in which perceived social support from the family was a significant positive predictor of self-esteem.

The final hypothesis was also accepted. Maladaptive perfectionism, represented by high standards and discrepancy between expectations and achievement, was moderately high in the sample and negatively predicted self-esteem. Prior research supports this finding, such as the study conducted by Methikalam et al. [42] on Indian immigrants to the US, wherein Discrepancy sub-scale scores of APS-R negatively predicted their self-esteem. In both the main analysis and additional analysis regression models, maladaptive perfectionism was a significant negative predictor of self-esteem in Indian university students in the UAE. However, this does not imply causation, and further experimental research is necessary to establish the nature of this relationship.

This study addresses a significant gap in research on the self-esteem of Indian immigrant university students, particularly in relation to ethnic identity, perceived social support, and maladaptive perfectionism. It is the first to examine how ethnic identity and maladaptive perfectionism are associated with the self-esteem of Indian immigrant students in the UAE, a Middle Eastern country. While previous studies such as Itani [66] and Kellogg [71] have focused on working immigrants and adolescents in the UAE, none have specifically targeted university students. Additionally, the study’s use of the EIS and APS-R scale, tested on Indian immigrants in the US, ensures its relevance and applicability to this population.

8. Limitations and Future Recommendations

This study has a few limitations worth noting. First, convenience sampling was used, and the sample was limited to students from a single university, so it may not fully represent the broader population of Indian immigrant students in the UAE. Second, the use of self-report measures introduces the possibility of social desirability bias, and the successive administration of four questionnaires may have led to fatigue effects [72]. Additionally, the MSPSS questionnaire, used to measure perceived social support, lacks negatively worded items, which may have increased acquiescence bias, particularly in a collectivist culture like that of the participants [73]. The questionnaire also did not distinguish between the types of social support participants received and perceived, such as instrumental, emotional, and informational support. The perception of what constitutes social support can vary across cultures and ethnicities, so this should be examined by future researchers [74]. Moreover, the study did not specifically investigate whether the perceived social support was from the individual’s close relationships or from the local culture. The affirmation sub-scale of the EIS, which only includes negatively worded items, may also yield biassed results, as the absence of negative feelings toward ethnicity does not necessarily imply positive feelings [75]. The mean and standard deviation of participants’ age could not be reported due to missing data. Gender-based differences in identification with ethnic identity, social support, maladaptive perfectionism and self-esteem were also not examined.

A fundamental limitation of correlational research is that it cannot establish causation and directionality; therefore, it is recommended that future studies incorporate longitudinal and experimental methodologies while studying these variables. Stepwise multiple regression was retained in the present study as an exploratory model-building procedure. Unlike hierarchical regression, which is generally theory-driven and relies on a justified order of entry for predictor blocks, the present study did not aim to test a clearly specified incremental model in which one set of predictors was expected to explain variance before another [76]. Rather, ethnic identity, perceived social support, and maladaptive perfectionism were treated as concurrent predictors of self-esteem, and stepwise regression was used to identify the most parsimonious subset of predictors within this sample. Nevertheless, stepwise procedures are data-driven and are therefore more appropriately viewed as exploratory than confirmatory. Given the sample size (N = 105), more robust internal validation procedures such as cross-validation or bootstrapping could not be conducted. Accordingly, the findings should be interpreted cautiously considering the known limitations of automated variable-selection procedures, including capitalization on chance, instability across samples, and overfitting [77,78,79].

Future studies could explore the relationship between collective self-esteem and individual self-esteem among Indian immigrant students, particularly in countries other than the US. The role of different types of perceived social support (emotional, informational, esteem, or instrumental) as well as whether social support from members of the same ethnic group or the host ethnic group is more important in shaping self-esteem could also be examined, offering useful information for social workers and educators seeking to better support students. Exploring whether acculturation has occurred and the dominant acculturation strategy utilized by Indian immigrant students in the UAE and other collectivistic cultures is also recommended. Finally, replicating this study with a larger sample size while controlling for age and gender effects would help strengthen the findings.

9. Implications

This study suggests that ethnic identity, family support, and maladaptive perfectionism may be important factors in the self-esteem of immigrant Indian university students. The findings indicate that preserving ethnic identity, rather than fully adopting a new identity, may support psychological adjustment, particularly through integration-based acculturation strategies [8,64]. Counsellors working with the Indian diaspora may therefore benefit from culturally sensitive approaches that consider ethnic identity, acculturation, and family dynamics [80,81].

The study also highlights the potential negative role of maladaptive perfectionism, possibly shaped by high parental expectations, in lowering self-esteem and affecting mental health. This is especially relevant given evidence that self-critical perfectionism is more strongly associated with depression among Indian students than among other Asian groups [16]. Family support may also play a key role in self-esteem, while family conflict linked to marginalized acculturation strategies could negatively affect children’s self-esteem [33,82]. Interventions for immigrant students may therefore benefit from supporting ethnic identity and social support while addressing perfectionistic tendencies, although these implications should be interpreted cautiously because the study does not establish causality or directly test intervention effectiveness.

10. Conclusions

In conclusion, this study contributes to the growing literature on self-esteem by examining its associations with ethnic identity, perceived social support, and maladaptive perfectionism among Indian university students in the UAE. The findings suggest that these factors are significantly related to self-esteem and may be relevant to psychological functioning in culturally diverse populations. However, due to the study’s cross-sectional, correlational design and reliance on self-report data, the findings should be interpreted as preliminary and context-specific. Future research should examine the direction and development of these relationships across diverse populations.