Shooting the Messenger? Harassment and Hate Speech Directed at Journalists on Social Media
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Political Hate or Insults
3.2. The Gender Dimension
4. Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Total Journalists | Men | Women | Media Outlets | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | (%) | Total | (%) | Total | (%) | Total | (%) | |
Insult | 251 | 36.01% | 183 | 37.81% | 68 | 31.92% | 94 | 26.48% |
Political hate | 346 | 49.64% | 244 | 50.41% | 102 | 47.89% | 148 | 41.69% |
Hate directed at the media | 13 | 1.87% | 11 | 2.27% | 2 | 0.94% | 6 | 1.69% |
Racial discrimination/hate | 15 | 2.15% | 6 | 1.24% | 9 | 4.23% | 58 | 16.34% |
Sexism/misogyny | 41 | 5.88% | 13 | 2.69% | 28 | 13.15% | 20 | 5.63% |
Homophobia/LGBTQ+phobia | 22 | 3.16% | 19 | 3.93% | 3 | 1.41% | 13 | 3.66% |
Other | 9 | 1.29% | 8 | 1.66% | 1 | 0.47% | 16 | 4.5% |
TOTAL | 697 | 100% | 484 | 100% | 213 | 100% | 347 | 100% |
Journalist | Gender | Number | Journalist | Gender | Number | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | AlfonsoRojoPD | M | 53 | 11 | JorgeBustos1 | M | 18 |
2 | javiernegre10 | M | 48 | 12 | RosaVillacastin | F | 18 |
3 | pacomarhuenda | M | 40 | 13 | sandrasabates11 | F | 17 |
4 | AntonioMaestre | M | 40 | 14 | LuciaMendezEM | F | 16 |
5 | estherpalomera | F | 36 | 15 | EstefaniaJoaq | M | 15 |
6 | AntonioRNaranjo | M | 28 | 16 | crpandemonium | M | 15 |
7 | ErnestoEkaizer | M | 25 | 17 | _InakiLopez_ | M | 15 |
8 | pedroj_ramirez | M | 22 | 18 | JesusCintora | M | 14 |
9 | carloscuestaEM | M | 20 | 19 | susannagriso | F | 13 |
10 | MariaJamardoC | F | 20 | 20 | PilarGGranja | F | 13 |
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Peña-Fernández, S.; Peña-Alonso, U.; Larrondo-Ureta, A.; Morales-i-Gras, J. Shooting the Messenger? Harassment and Hate Speech Directed at Journalists on Social Media. Societies 2025, 15, 130. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15050130
Peña-Fernández S, Peña-Alonso U, Larrondo-Ureta A, Morales-i-Gras J. Shooting the Messenger? Harassment and Hate Speech Directed at Journalists on Social Media. Societies. 2025; 15(5):130. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15050130
Chicago/Turabian StylePeña-Fernández, Simón, Urko Peña-Alonso, Ainara Larrondo-Ureta, and Jordi Morales-i-Gras. 2025. "Shooting the Messenger? Harassment and Hate Speech Directed at Journalists on Social Media" Societies 15, no. 5: 130. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15050130
APA StylePeña-Fernández, S., Peña-Alonso, U., Larrondo-Ureta, A., & Morales-i-Gras, J. (2025). Shooting the Messenger? Harassment and Hate Speech Directed at Journalists on Social Media. Societies, 15(5), 130. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15050130