Resilient Rice Farming: Household Strategies for Coping with Recurrent Floods in Tempe Lake, Indonesia

Abstract

Flooding in Tempe Lake, Indonesia, poses ongoing socioeconomic challenges, mainly affecting food security, agricultural output, and household livelihoods. The recurrent and unpredictable floods disrupt planting and harvesting periods, resulting in significant food production deficits and posing complex adaptive challenges for residents. This study examines the socioeconomic adaptation strategies employed by rice farmer households to mitigate the adverse effects of flooding. The study analyzed a random sample of 160 people, utilized descriptive–analytical methodologies, and displayed the findings through graphs and matrix tables. Research reveals that fishing and rice farming serve as the primary revenue sources for households in the region. Despite financial challenges, households maintain security due to dependable food sources and proximity to the lake. The study emphasises the importance of efficient rice cultivation management owing to its short growth cycles and vulnerability to flooding. Moreover, freshwater aquaculture presents a sustainable strategy for mitigating flood risks in climate change, mainly when supported by microcredit, training, and improved market access. The findings highlight the necessity of social and structural adjustments in reducing vulnerability and enhancing community resilience, offering substantial recommendations for improving long-term resilience and food security in flood-prone regions.

1. Introduction

Food security continues to be a critical global issue, particularly for rural populations reliant on agriculture as their primary source of livelihood. Climate change exacerbates this issue by amplifying natural disasters such as floods, which disrupt agricultural activities, diminish economic stability, and threaten food availability [1,2,3]. Floods significantly harm agriculture and infrastructure in low-lying regions, displace communities, and disrupt socio-economic systems [4]. Extensive research has investigated the impact of flooding on rural livelihoods, highlighting the necessity for adaptive methods to enhance resilience and protect food security [5].

In Indonesia, a nation particularly vulnerable to climate change, rural agricultural communities are under substantial threat from flooding. Research in flood-prone regions, such as the Mekong Delta and rural Java, has underscored the importance of diversification and social cohesiveness in mitigating the negative impacts of floods on livelihoods [6,7,8,9]. However, there is a clear need for more research on household-level adaptation options, especially in areas where traditional farming practices are deeply integrated into the socio-economic structure.

Tempe Lake, located in South Sulawesi, Indonesia, is a fascinating case study investigating these difficulties. This flood-prone region endures frequent and intense inundations, disrupting planting cycles, diminishing agricultural productivity, and threatening the food security of its inhabitants. The lake’s hydrological system, nourished by tributary rivers, sustains many livelihoods, including rice cultivation and fishing. Notwithstanding these opportunities, the unpredictability of flooding requires ongoing adaptation by households and communities [10,11,12].

Rice is essential for household livelihoods, fulfilling dietary requirements and acting as a principal source of revenue [5,13,14]. Indonesian farmers choose rice growing over other agricultural pursuits due to its dual significance as a staple meal, a crucial component of the community’s socio-economic structure, and its cultural relevance as a fundamental right for all residents [15,16]. To alleviate the dangers of flooding and rice crop failures, agricultural specialists advocate for farmers to implement flood-resistant rice varieties, diversify income sources, sustain emergency food stockpiles, and enhance community cooperation [17]. Although current research predominantly focuses on community-level resilience to climate change, there is a paucity of studies examining the individual techniques employed by households to adapt [18,19,20,21]. This study examines household-level responses to frequent floods and their effects on food security.

This study enhances resilience theory by examining household-level adaptations to recurrent flooding, highlighting the essential importance of individual behaviours in promoting adaptive capacity. Resilience theory, which analyses the capacity of systems to withstand shocks and recuperate from disturbances [13,14], has frequently been utilised at the community level [15,16]. This research underscores the necessity of comprehending household-specific responses to effectively tackle the issues encountered by rural populations in flood-prone regions such as Tempe Lake, Indonesia.

By employing the sustainable livelihoods framework [17], the study examines how human and natural capital might mitigate vulnerability and enhance household resilience. Essential solutions encompass diversifying revenue streams, implementing flood-resistant crops, and sustaining food stores, collectively bolstering food security in the face of environmental disturbances [7,18]. Access to agricultural training and involvement in community networks significantly augment adaptation capacity by supplying essential information and resources [19,20]. Diversifying livelihoods is essential for enhancing resilience by diminishing reliance on flood-prone farming practices. Households involved in non-agricultural income sources, such as fishing or small-scale trading, are more capable of sustaining economic stability during flood disasters [22,23].

Although social networks generally bolster resilience, they may reinforce exclusion and marginalization based on local socioeconomic conditions [24]. The study enhances resilience theory by addressing these issues. It offers pragmatic insights for policymakers and practitioners to enhance household resilience and food security in at-risk areas such as Tempe Lake. Numerous studies have recorded the ability of communities to adapt to climate change, emphasising their resilience against environmental problems [25,26,27]. These studies examine risks, including crop failures, erratic weather patterns, and diminished agricultural production, which substantially affect farmers [28,29,30,31,32]. In Indonesia, research has predominantly concentrated on the adaptation of agricultural communities to flooding, a recurrent and catastrophic effect of climate change [33,34,35]. Research on the Tempe Lake area has examined the community’s susceptibility to frequent flooding, which undermines livelihoods and jeopardises food security [33,34,35]. Furthermore, studies have investigated solutions to alleviate the detrimental impacts of flooding, such as diversifying income streams, enhancing agricultural methods, and promoting community cooperation [33,36,37,38,39]. These findings underscore the essential role of customised adaptation methods in enhancing community resilience to climate-induced flooding.

Studies have made progress, but most studies have focused on community-wide resilience, frequently overlooking adaptation strategies at the household level. Research has thoroughly examined Indonesia’s food security, sufficiency, and sovereignty, providing important insights into the socioeconomic and environmental challenges affecting these elements [11,12,40,41,42,43,44]. Research in multiple countries, including Indonesia, has examined climate change adaptation, flooding, and their broader implications for food security [45,46,47,48,49]. Despite existing studies on Tempe Lake that examine community flood adaptation strategies, resilience, and food consumption patterns [9,50,51], there is a significant research gap in understanding the adaptations of individual households to flooding to ensure food security. Current studies fail to address the complex strategies employed by households to maintain their livelihoods in the face of recurring floods. This study examines household-level flooding adaptations and their implications for food security in flood-prone areas such as Tempe Lake [25,26,27].

A notable study deficiency exists in comprehending how lakefront households in the Tempe Lake region’s unique ecological and socio-economic context adjust to flooding to ensure food security. Although most studies highlight community-wide resilience and food consumption, they frequently neglect the solutions utilised by individual households to maintain their livelihoods amid periodic floods. This study addresses this gap by analysing household-level adaptations in the Tempe Lake region, concentrating on socio-economic strategies, agricultural practices, and food security outcomes.

The study uniquely focuses on household-level responses, including livelihood diversification, income-generation techniques, and agricultural modifications, such as adopting flood-resistant rice cultivars. It examines these measures to comprehend their function in mitigating the detrimental effects of flooding on food security and household stability. The study addresses a significant gap in the literature by focusing on household-level adaptations, often overshadowed by community-wide or institutional responses. It offers insights to guide targeted interventions that enhance the adaptive capacity of vulnerable rural populations.

This research significantly enhances our understanding of resilience methods in flood-prone areas by focusing on household-level adaptations. The findings not only guide specific initiatives and policy recommendations but also empower us with the knowledge to improve food security and reduce vulnerability for populations surrounding Tempe Lake.

2. Methods

2.1. Study Sites

Tempe Lake, located in Wajo District, South Sulawesi, Indonesia, is a vital water reservoir and agricultural resource. The lake’s hydrology is influenced by tributary rivers, such as the Walanae and Bila Rivers, which contribute to dynamic water levels, particularly during the rainy season. Surrounding subdistricts, including Belawa, Sabbangparu, and Belawa, were meticulously selected for this study based on their reliance on the lake for agricultural and fishing activities. This thorough selection process ensures that the study is comprehensive.

Figure 1 depicts the location of Tempe Lake is in the Wajo District, within South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Geographically, it lies in the central part of South Sulawesi, forming a vital water body surrounded by multiple regencies, including Wajo, Soppeng, and Sidrap. The lake is fed by a network of tributary rivers, with the Walanae and Bila Rivers playing significant roles in its hydrology. These rivers converge at the lake, contributing to their dynamic water levels, particularly during the rainy season when heavy rainfall and runoff result in frequent flooding.

In the broader context of South Sulawesi, Tempe Lake serves as a critical catchment area, regulating water flows and supporting agriculture and aquaculture in the region. It lies at a low elevation and connects to other provinces’ lakes, such as Sidenreng Lake, creating a complex hydrological system. Water from Tempe Lake also flows into the Gulf of Bone through the Cenranae River, highlighting the lake’s strategic geographical position and its important function as a regional water reservoir.

2.2. Study Design and Sampling

A two-stage cluster sampling approach was employed to select 160 rice-farming households—representing approximately five per cent of the estimated rice-farming population in Wajo District—for this study. In the first stage, three subdistricts, Sabbangparu, Tempe, and Tanasitolo, were purposively selected from the four subdistricts partially impacted by the Tempe Lake ecosystem. The selection was based on their high vulnerability to seasonal flooding and heavy dependence on rice farming and lake-based livelihoods. This deliberate focus on the most vulnerable areas underscores the study’s commitment to addressing the most pressing issues in the field. Belawa subdistrict was excluded due to its relatively lower exposure to flooding events. In the second stage, households were randomly drawn from official village-level lists of rice-farming families within each selected subdistrict using simple random sampling. While random sampling does not ensure proportional representation across all demographic and geographic categories, the purposive selection of the most flood-affected subdistricts helped ensure that the study captured a wide range of diverse rice farmer household experiences. This approach enabled the study to generate a nuanced understanding of the socio-economic challenges and adaptation strategies employed by rice-farming households directly impacted by recurring floods, aligning with the study’s central aim of informing resilience-building efforts in flood-prone regions.

2.3. Data Collection

The research team collected data through a mixed-methods approach, combining structured surveys, semi-structured interviews, and direct observations, as follows:

(1)

Household Survey: The study administered a structured questionnaire to all 160 households, capturing detailed socio-economic information, including household demographics, income sources, agricultural practices, and food security status;

(2)

Semi-Structured Interviews: In-depth interviews were conducted with ten key respondents (e.g., household heads and community leaders) to gain qualitative insights into adaptive strategies and coping mechanisms during floods. These interviews explored themes such as income diversification, social collaboration, and the use of flood-resistant crops;

(3)

Direct Observations: The study observed farming areas and households to document adaptive practices, such as planting schedules and flood mitigation techniques, and recorded field notes to contextualize survey and interview data.

In addition to primary data collected through household surveys, semi-structured interviews, and direct observations, secondary data were utilized to provide contextual information about the socio-economic and environmental characteristics of the Tempe Lake region. These secondary sources, including government reports, the academic literature, and local agricultural records, informed specific sections of the analysis, and researchers explicitly referenced them to maintain transparency and replicability.

The study, which sought to explore institutional arrangements supporting household adaptation to flooding, conducted semi-structured interviews with key actors. These included village leaders, farmer group representatives, irrigation service providers, and rice milling unit (RMU) operators. The insights gathered from these interviews, which focused on how formal and informal institutions facilitate access to credit, inputs, irrigation, and information through trust-based arrangements like profit-sharing, have practical implications. We also used field observations to validate reported practices and capture institutional dynamics. This approach, which allowed us to assess how local institutions influence the adaptive capacity of rice-farming households, provides practical knowledge that can empower policymakers and practitioners in the field of agricultural adaptation and flood management.

2.4. Analytical Framework

The research team analyzed quantitative data from the household survey using descriptive statistics, such as frequencies and cross-tabulations, to summarize key household characteristics (e.g., age, education level, family size, and land ownership). To provide deeper insights, we developed matrix tables and visualized income disparities and shifts in livelihood patterns through bar and pie charts. These visual tools highlight critical variations across household types.

We conducted thematic analysis on qualitative data from interviews and observations, generating codes to identify recurring patterns in adaptive strategies and socio-economic coping mechanisms. This thematic analysis enabled us to connect observed behaviours with broader resilience frameworks. We triangulated quantitative and qualitative data to capture a holistic view of household resilience to recurring floods.

In analysing household adaptation strategies, the study categorized households into three groups based on their primary livelihood patterns: (1) Agricultural Dominance, households relying predominantly on rice farming; (2) Mixed Livelihoods, households combining farming and fishing activities; and (3) Diversified Income, households deriving a significant portion of income from non-agricultural activities such as small businesses or wage labour. The study determined these categories using survey data on income sources, livelihood activities, and adaptive practices, guiding the categorization process with thresholds defined during preliminary data analysis to ensure clear differentiation between groups.

The study categorizes rice farmers in the Tempe Lake area into six distinct groups: landowners, sharecropping participants, landlords, and those engaging in a combination of these arrangements. Notably, the study identified no farmers exclusively as owners, tenants, or lessees. They defined share tenants as farmers who manage and cultivate land under sharecropping agreements, highlighting the varied land tenure practices in the region.

In this study, “community” refers to the collective group of individuals and households living in and around the Tempe Lake region in Wajo District, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. This region encompasses multiple villages, such as Belawa, Sabbangparu, and Maniang Pajo, where residents share interconnected livelihoods, social networks, and adaptive strategies for managing flooding challenges. The “region” refers to the broader geographic area surrounding Tempe Lake, including the lake, adjacent lowlands, and agricultural lands that experience seasonal flooding, shaping the socio-economic and hydrological dynamics. The term “village” denotes smaller administrative units within the sub-district, such as those mentioned above, which play a crucial role in the community structure by serving as centres for daily activities, social interactions, and agricultural operations. In Indonesia, these villages, commonly called “Desa”, represent the fundamental social unit that fosters community cohesion and identity. Finally, the study defines “households” as individual family units within these villages that rely on rice farming, fishing, and other supplementary activities for their livelihoods. Many households have demonstrated resilience and ingenuity in addressing environmental challenges by constructing elevated homes near the lake to adapt to seasonal flooding.

3. Results

3.1. Household Socio-Economic Characteristics

The results indicate that most family heads are middle-aged (40–60 years), engaged in a livelihood that integrates farming and fishing. Educational attainment is limited, with more than 50% having completed only primary education and one-fifth being illiterate. Households are typically tiny, with most consisting of fewer than four individuals. Settlement patterns exhibit robust local ties, as most households are either indigenous to the lake region or established through matrimony, with a lesser fraction migrating from other areas.

Table 1. Percentage of households based on social characteristics (per cent).

Characteristic	Range (N = 160)			Total
Age (year)	<40	40–60	>60
	29.66	60.00	10.34	100.00
Employment	Farmer	Farmer+fihserment	Farmer+others
	2.07	84.83	13.10	100.00
Household head education	Illiterate	Elementary	High school
	20.69	54.48	24.82	100.00
Household size (people)	<4	4–6	>6
	58.62	37.24	4.4	100
History settlement in the lake region	Place of birth	Marriage with a local resident	Migration to the lake region
	57.24	29.66	13.10	100.00

presents findings from a survey of 160 families in the Tempe Lake area, emphasising significant demographic, educational, and settlement trends. The mean household size was 5.2 persons, led by individuals aged 40 to 55 years. Educational attainment was notably inadequate, with 62% of household heads having completed only elementary education and 12% achieving secondary education or above. Property ownership was widespread, with 78% of households possessing a minimum of 1 hectare of agricultural property, primarily utilised for rice farming. The poll indicated a combination of native and immigrant populations, with 57% of residents being native-born and 41% immigrants. Marriage connections also influenced the community, with 30% of people wed to locals and 13% having moved to the area. These findings highlight the region’s demographic and educational issues and the varied backgrounds shaping its social foundation.

3.2. Farmer Status

This rice farming management method demonstrates the diverse arrangements that farmers employ to enhance their income. They lease land to both landowners and non-landowners, exemplifying a flexible approach to optimising regional agricultural prospects. The sharecropping system, the predominant arrangement among farmers, is succeeded by ownership, owner-sharing, leasing, owner–lease status, and lease-share status. Farmers employing the sharecropping system typically cultivate small average rice fields, reflecting this arrangement’s limited land access characteristic. Conversely, owner–lease farmers manage the most extensive rice fields, attaining this scale through leasing, owner–sharing, and cooperative arrangements. Lease and share farmers, typified by short land tenure, cultivate the land, emphasising the ephemeral nature of their agricultural arrangements in contrast to those with more permanent ownership or lease agreements.

Figure 2 demonstrates that perceptive farmers significantly influence the rice farming management system in the Tempe Lake region, cultivating an average of 0.50 hectares of land. In contrast, landowners who actively participate in farming oversee an average of 1.34 hectares, constituting around 29% of the total landowners. Leasing farmers frequently operate extensively, employing their land or engaging in production-sharing partnerships. Landowners typically cultivate 4.83 hectares, tenant farmers manage 2.49 hectares, while landlords oversee around 1.93 hectares. Notably, tenant–owner farmers manage the largest average land areas, although many still cultivate relatively small plots. Tenant-only and tenant–rent farmers cultivate the smallest average area, about 0.5 hectares, underscoring land availability and utilization inequalities among various farming arrangements.

A collective of tenant farmers attempts to augment their revenue by obtaining adjacent rice fields. Notably, residents from beyond the immediate area frequently possess agricultural land surrounding Tempe Lake. Many individuals originally from Tempe Lake have moved overseas, while newcomers from adjacent cities have acquired rice farms in the region, integrating into the local population. Over time, numerous farmers have shifted from land ownership to assuming specialised roles. Despite selling their fields to neighbours or distant buyers, farmers actively cultivate the land under production-sharing agreements, ensuring continuous agricultural activity and providing the community with stability and reassurance.

In-depth interviews with key informants indicated that the principal motivation for land sales in the Tempe Lake region is to optimize profit and frequently address personal or financial requirements, such as initiating a business or financing familial occasions like a son’s wedding. Farmers often divest their rice fields and persist in cultivation through profit-sharing arrangements, satisfying immediate cash requirements while sustaining revenue. Although smaller plots generate less profit than larger agricultural parcels, farmers in South Sulawesi appraise irrigated rice fields at 5–10 times the value of other agricultural assets. Through profit-sharing, they distribute earnings after covering operational costs, excluding ploughing expenses, which they bear, ensuring they continue to benefit from the land even after its sale.

Lease farmers in the agricultural environment of Tempe Lake distinguish themselves by emphasizing financial and commercial goals. The magnitude of their businesses distinguishes these farmers, as lease-owner farmers oversee more significant tracts of land than their leasing counterparts. Leaseholder farmers oversee an average of 4.83 hectares, and lessees cultivate an average of 2.49 hectares. The disparity in land tenure highlights the divergent objectives and capabilities of these two groups, with leaseholder farmers positioned to engage in larger commercially oriented enterprises. Concurrently, leaseholders oversee smaller-scale agriculture with constrained resources. This disparity illustrates differing land utilization and income production strategies within the agricultural sector.

3.3. Livelihood Sources

The population of Tempe Lake relies heavily on agriculture and fishing as their primary sources of income. The residents skilfully balance crop cultivation and fishing, deriving a sense of fulfilment from the agricultural and aquatic activities that shape their daily lives. However, the need to diversify becomes essential for those with lower earnings from these traditional livelihoods. Many households turn to alternative sources of income, supplementing their agricultural and fishing efforts to ensure financial stability and improve their overall well-being. This adaptability is key to sustaining their livelihoods in a region where natural resources are both a blessing and a challenge.

Tempe Lake residents engage in various occupations, including carpentry, home industries, trade, construction, and service sectors, to improve their financial circumstances. Despite the constraints of living in a rural area, this diversified approach to income generation highlights the community’s resilience and adaptability. Their willingness to explore multiple avenues for revenue reflects an initiative-taking strategy to overcome economic challenges, highlighting their determination to seize emerging opportunities and secure a more stable future. This multi-faceted approach enables residents to navigate the fluctuations in their local economy better.

Despite various livelihoods, a notable income disparity exists between cultivation and fishing villages. Cultivation villages tend to generate higher incomes, primarily due to the economic significance of rice farming, which plays a pivotal role in local prosperity. Rice cultivation yields more revenue than fishing, underscoring the region’s heavy economic dependence on agriculture. This contrast highlights rice production’s significant role in shaping these communities’ financial well-being.

Nevertheless, fishing specialists face limited employment opportunities, prompting inhabitants to seek alternative ways to support their households. Despite their deep connection to the lake and its resources, they continue to adapt and innovate to maintain their rural livelihoods. The residents of Tempe Lake embody the spirit of rural resilience, interdependence, and creativity, striving to sustain their way of life. These qualities are evident in the serene lakes and fertile lands that sustain their community, reflecting their enduring commitment to preserving their rural heritage.

Figure 3 illustrates that residents of Tempe Lake’s residents primarily depend on agriculture and fishing for their livelihoods. By effectively juggling farming and fishing, the locals derive a sense of fulfilment from the pursuits that influence their everyday lives. Diversification, however, becomes crucial for people who make less money from these conventional sources of income. Many households rely on other revenue streams to augment their farming and fishing endeavours to maintain financial security and enhance their general well-being. In an area where natural resources are both a boon and a burden, this flexibility is essential to maintaining their standard of living.

Beyond individual and household strategies, local institutions play a crucial yet often understated role in shaping adaptive capacity to flooding in the Tempe Lake region. Informal arrangements with irrigation service providers and rice milling units (RMUs) are key to accessing credit, agricultural inputs, and water management services. These actors often operate through trust-based profit-sharing agreements or in-kind credit systems, offering flexible and timely support to rice-farming households during flood-prone periods. Additionally, farmer groups and local networks provide a platform for information sharing and collective action, such as coordinating planting schedules or pooling labour and equipment during emergencies. While formal institutional presence remains limited, these embedded social arrangements function as community-based governance structures that strengthen resilience. The integration of these local institutions into household adaptation processes underscores the importance of recognising and leveraging grassroots mechanisms in broader climate adaptation and disaster risk reduction strategies.

Tempe Lake inhabitants work in various jobs, including carpentry, home industries, trade, construction, and service sectors, to improve their financial situation. This diverse approach to revenue generation demonstrates the community’s adaptation and resilience despite the limitations of living in a rural environment. A proactive approach to overcoming economic issues is demonstrated by their readiness to investigate various revenue streams, underscoring their resolve to take advantage of new opportunities and ensure a more secure future. This multifaceted strategy helps locals better navigate the difficulties of their local economy.

However, those specialising in fishing have limited work options, leading households to look for other methods to support their families. Despite their strong ties to the lake and its resources, they continue to innovate and adapt to sustain their rural lifestyles. Tempe Lake’s citizens exemplify the spirit of rural resilience, interdependence, and innovation as they work to maintain their way of life. These attributes demonstrate their unwavering dedication to conserving their rural heritage and are visible in the tranquil lakes and lush grounds that support their community.

Table 2. Number of households, income level, and income variation based on income sources (IDR/Year/Household).

Income Sources	Frequency (n = 160)
	Variation (%)	Lowest	Highest	Respondent (%)
Dominant Farm	74.92	1,540,000	81,036,000	61.38
Farm	78.08	810,000	55,472,000
Fishing	140.36	120,000	5,560,000
Dominant Fishing	68.86	1,979,000	45,707,520	24.83
Farm	97.37	240,000	21,876,000
Fishing	73.49	1,200,000	33,900,000
Farm-Fishery-Others	92.16	1,212,600	85,060,000	13.79
Farm	69.38	732,600	75,460,000
Fishing	86.28	300,000	23,580,000
Total Income	27.96	4,015,200	85,060,200	100.00
Farm	6.00	720,400	75,460,000
Fishing	112.42	240,000	33,900,000

Note: Exchange Rate IDR 15,500/US$.

presents income trends in the farming and fishing sectors within the Tempe Lake region, highlighting a significant disparity in income stability between the two activities. The agriculture sector has minimal income variability, with a mere 6% volatility, suggesting that farming households may depend on a consistent and foreseeable money source. Conversely, the fishing business exhibits a significant income fluctuation of 111.42%, highlighting the intrinsic volatility and unpredictability of fishing as an economic endeavor. Variables, such as catch quantities and market pricing, contribute to this substantial income difference. The divergent income dynamics of agriculture and fisheries underscore the unique problems and possibilities households encounter in each sector, emphasizing the necessity for focused interventions and support mechanisms to bolster resilience and sustainability in rural communities surrounding Tempe Lake.

3.4. Food Sources and Consumption

The resources at Tempe Lake are essential for fulfilling inhabitants’ fundamental needs and promoting a sense of safety and satisfaction within the community. Agriculturalists in the region can diversify their livelihoods by participating in aquaculture and cultivating vegetables and cereals. They can withdraw water from the lake to irrigate rice paddies and cultivate rice biannually in the lush adjacent terrain. Angling in the lake offers a significant source of protein. Furthermore, individuals cultivate vegetables in gardens or on segmented rice fields. Unlike crops, fisherman cannot cultivate or collect fish at their pleasure because of the lake’s variable water levels. In the dry season, numerous fishermen procure fish from alternative locations as viable fishing grounds grow far in the distant. They often spend more on operational costs than the market value of the fish they capture, making fishing an economically arduous endeavor for many farmers.

Figure 4 illustrates that most community members consume rice and vegetables they have individually grown, whereas fish is an exception. Many locals buy fish instead of catching them themselves. This dependence on acquiring fish arises from several factors, including family members’ physical fatigue from fishing, a need for a more varied diet, and the necessity for fish species that are not present in the lake. A mere 11% of the population purchases rice, whereas more than 40% acquire fish from external sources. This trend highlights the community’s agricultural self-sufficiency, juxtaposed with a heightened reliance on external fish sources.

The principal objective of houses adjacent to Tempe Lake is to ensure a dependable food supply for their families. Consequently, they allocate a portion of their rice production to meet their needs. Figure 5 illustrates the variable ratios of rice and food stockpiles about total production, demonstrating significant fluctuation. The volume of agricultural output and the financial resources generated by farmers significantly influence this fluctuation. Farmers experiencing reduced crop yields and earnings generally designate a more significant portion of their produce for home use, highlighting the necessity for self-sufficiency amid economic or agricultural volatility.

Figure 5 illustrates the storage practices employed by rice farmers in the region. Approximately 39.1% of farmers retain a segment of their harvest, with the majority storing between 10% and 20% of their overall production. Furthermore, 9% of farmers conserve between 20% and 30%, whereas a smaller segment, approximately 6%, retains between 50% and 100% of their yield. Merely 2% of farmers opt against storing rice for personal consumption. The confident farmers expedite selling their rice stocks to generate income during periods of financial necessity. Approximately 9% of farmers store fewer than 100kg of rice per person, whereas 47% store more than 200kg per capita, indicating varied storage capacities within the community.

Figure 6 illustrates an inverse relationship between expenditure percentage and in-come level, indicating that lower-income households allocate a larger portion of their in-come to spending. Food costs play a significant role in household expenditure, under-scoring its crucial role in daily sustenance. The data reveal that households earning less than IDR 10 million annually often face financial shortfalls, as their expenses surpass their income. In contrast, those with yearly wages between IDR 10–15 million typically maintain a balanced budget, with total expenditure nearly matching their earnings. To bridge income gaps, lower-income households employ various coping strategies, including seeking financial assistance from family, relying on community support, utilizing social safety net programs, and generating additional income through side activities or in-formal employment. These findings underscore the financial vulnerability of low-income households and the vital role of community support in sustaining their livelihoods.

The research indicates that low-income households in the Tempe Lake region experience considerable financial vulnerability, with expenditures frequently surpassing income, particularly for individuals earning less than IDR 10 million annually. They depend on strategies such as financial aid, communal support, and supplementary employment to manage. Conversely, households with annual incomes of IDR 10–15 million successfully maintain budgetary equilibrium. Food expenditures predominate in overall spending, underscoring their vital importance for daily sustenance and the necessity for enhanced support structures to foster financial resilience.

Figure 7 reveals that approximately 78.62% of the population’s expenditure on food and social activities exceeds their total income, highlighting financial strain within the community. Additionally, around 27.59% of individuals dedicate a more significant portion of their expenses to food than to other categories. With an annual income of less than IDR 15 million per person, many residents find it challenging to meet both food and social needs, placing some at risk of poverty. However, the government’s social security programs and the region’s ample food supply enable these individuals to survive and thrive in Tempe Lake. Only 6.90% of the population earned income at or above the Regional Minimum Wage (UMR) for South Sulawesi in 2022, i.e., IDR 3.165 million monthly. Moreover, about 13.70% of the population allocates up to 25% of their income toward food expenses, reflecting the varying levels of economic burden across households.

4. Discussion

4.1. Farmer Households’ Adaptive Strategies for Flood Resilience

Farmers’ households in Tempe Lake rely on rice cultivation as their main income source; however, they face significant socioeconomic challenges due to recurrent floods that disrupt planting schedules and reduce production. Many family heads have limited educational qualifications. While rice cultivation offers a stable income, fishing is marked by considerable volatility, leading many to seek diversification through small enterprises or wage labor. Limited access to land and reliance on sharecropping or leasing hinder economic stability, as certain farmers relinquish land while continuing cultivation through profit-sharing agreements. Floods threaten food security by reducing rice production, necessitating that individuals conserve part of their harvest and obtain fish. Farmers cultivate rice varieties resistant to flooding, adjust planting schedules, and participate in freshwater aquaculture. Elevated food costs often exceed revenue, highlighting the need for improved adaptation strategies to bolster resilience and secure long-term food stability [46].

Rice farming is the primary livelihood for many rural households, particularly in areas with limited economic alternatives. Despite its fundamental role in ensuring food security, farming often yields lower financial returns than other occupations, pushing many households to operate on narrow profit margins while prioritizing subsistence over commercial gains [45]. However, leasing land offers an opportunity for some farmers to achieve financial success, as they manage their leased plots with the same diligence as landowners, aiming for profitability and sustainability. Lease farmers often attain higher economic status than those cultivating smaller or owned parcels, as their financial flexibility allows them to navigate market fluctuations and optimize production. This specialized niche within the farming sector fosters innovation and efficiency, enabling these farmers to secure long-term success while ensuring food security for their households.

The recurrent flooding in Tempe Lake significantly affects the community, especially the agricultural sector. Incorrect assessment of the optimal planting window by farmers frequently results in crop failures, with early and delayed planting being significant factors in this issue. Despite the persistent risk of flooding, farmers exhibit resilience, motivated by the imperative to sustain their families while cultivating rice fields. Residents exhibit significant resilience, adjusting to living in homes where water levels may reach one meter. Some individuals confront floods to protect their homes and possessions, demonstrating their courage and commitment to safeguarding their livelihoods [46,47].

Tempe Lake experiences increasingly frequent and intense cyclical flooding, with water levels escalating substantially every five years. The increase in water levels is chiefly caused by heightened erosion in adjacent watersheds, resulting in sediment accumulation around the lake and more significant flooding. The confluence of multiple rivers at the lake’s estuary intensifies the flooding issue. Tempe Lake serves as an essential water reservoir, briefly retaining water before its discharge into the sea, therefore functioning as more than a flood basin. Managing water dynamics and reducing the repercussions of repeated floods pose continual problems for local populations and authorities [48,49,54].

Climate change and environmental degradation primarily drive flooding in Tempe Lake. In response, the local community takes proactive measures to adapt and reduce the adverse effects of flooding. Given these conditions, farmers and the government must prioritize cultivating drought-resistant rice varieties requiring less water and shorter growing cycles [48,54,55]. Farmers frequently face crop failures, reduced yields, and the need to evacuate their homes as floodwater rises. Despite water levels reaching one meter, many residents continue to inhabit their homes, staying behind to protect their property and belongings. During floods, some residents benefit from backyard fishing and receive food aid from the government or other external sources, providing crucial support in challenging times.

Frequent floods have necessitated the community to implement various adaptation techniques to mitigate risks and minimize losses. The collaborative endeavors of lakeside inhabitants to alleviate flood-related damage underscore their resilience amid ongoing problems. Climate change and environmental deterioration have predominantly impacted Tempe Lake through recurrent flooding. Consequently, coordination between farmers and the government has become essential, concentrating on developing rice cultivars with shorter lifespans exhibiting water resistance and drought tolerance. This collaboration is essential for protecting livelihoods and promoting regional agricultural sustainability [56,57,58].

The interaction between natural resources, technology, and institutional frameworks plays a pivotal role in the dynamic ecology of the Tempe Lake region. This synergy helps to mitigate flood risks and supports diverse income-generating activities for local communities. Through their hard work and dedication, the population relies on fertile land and abundant waterways to sustain their livelihoods, with agriculture and fishing serving as longstanding pillars of the local economy. However, given the unpredictability of these industries, many residents have diversified their income sources. Those with limited earnings from farming or fishing often supplement their livelihoods by working in carpentry, home renovation, trade, construction, or other service sectors. This adaptability not only enhances resilience to natural calamities but also underscores the resourcefulness of the people living in the Tempe Lake area [59,60,61,62].

Farmers employ many adaptation strategies to flooding, including improved crop varieties, diversification, and adjusted planting schedules, which have augmented family food security [63,64,65]. Floods persist as a considerable obstacle in lowland rice cultivation, leading to crop losses, neglected land, and disruptions to livelihoods [66]. Many farmers strive to adapt by modifying planting schedules or employing flood-resistant rice varieties; nonetheless, challenges such as financial constraints and limited access to technology persist. Improving resilience in agricultural households affected by floods requires integrated solutions that combine mitigation, adaptation, and coping strategies. Policies that improve disaster response mechanisms, early warning systems, and the development of flood-resistant rice cultivars are essential for safeguarding rice production and guaranteeing food security in vulnerable regions [63,64,65]. Farmers in the region implement a risk-sharing mechanism by partnering with pump irrigation service providers and landowners through a profit-sharing arrangement that employs irrigation pumps [67].

4.2. Food Fulfilment Strategy for Adapting to Flooding

Households of farmers in flood-affected regions of Tempe Lake implement various measures to ensure food security and preserve their livelihoods despite environmental adversities. They integrate rice cultivation with fishing, minor trading, and non-agricultural employment to ensure income stability. Flood-resistant rice cultivars, modified planting schedules, and vegetable gardening contribute to the sustainability of food production. Households reserve rice for flood seasons and acquire fish due to fishing challenges during elevated water levels. Altering agricultural cycles and including aquaculture improves resilience and economic stability in the face of persistent environmental difficulties [68,69,70].

Two fundamental strategies for attaining household food security are revenue generation and fulfilling dietary requirements. The land is a crucial asset in agriculture, offering flexibility through many tenure arrangements such as full ownership, joint tenancy, or rental agreements. Households obtain food through three primary strategies: utilizing self-produced food, acquiring food from the market, or employing a combination of both approaches [71]. This interaction of tactics underscores the resilience of agricultural communities, especially in precarious contexts such as coastal regions, where local resources and new techniques are crucial for addressing environmental constraints and guaranteeing survival [72].

The farming of rice constitutes the principal source of livelihood for most inhabitants in Tempe Lake, thereby guaranteeing food security via self-grown grains and vegetables. Simultaneously, fish, despite being a dietary essential, are frequently procured from markets rather than captured directly. The physical exigencies of fishing, the necessity for dietary variety, and the restricted availability of specific fish species render self-sufficiency in food production uncommon. This dependence on external fish sources underscores the essential function of Tempe Lake’s natural resources in maintaining family food accessibility and enhancing overall community resilience [73,74].

The semiannual floods that characterize life in the Tempe Lake region necessitate distinctive nutritional strategies, forcing lakeside families to rely significantly on natural resources for sustenance. Families often employ one of two principal techniques to secure household welfare: revenue generation or dietary adequacy. Some families concentrate on food production, whereas others depend on market acquisitions or combine both methods. Land ownership is essential in these measures, enabling households to equilibrate food production with financial resources to sustain food security [38,75].

Farmers integrate agricultural and non-agricultural activities to bolster resilience, utilizing adaptive tactics such as floating dwellings, seasonal ceremonies, and cultivation on exposed lakebeds during arid periods. Fishing communities adapt by altering dwelling structures and diversifying into agriculture or informal employment as water levels decline, thus maintaining economic stability and long-term food security [2,38,64,66]. Numerous homes preserve segments of their harvest and cultivate vegetables to ensure a consistent carbohydrate supply, while protein sources, predominantly fish, are generally acquired from markets. The availability of local crops and revenue from agriculture or alternative jobs sustains nutritional requirements, bolstering food security despite the environmental obstacles posed by seasonal flooding [76,77].

In addition to socio-economic adaptations, the findings of this study highlight the critical role of environmental conservation and mitigation practices in enhancing household resilience to recurrent flooding in the Tempe Lake region. At the household level, farmers have adopted flood-resistant and short-cycle rice varieties, allowing them to align planting and harvesting cycles with seasonal flood patterns and reduce crop losses [58,65]. Adjustments to cultivation schedules further demonstrate the community’s responsiveness to environmental signals and their reliance on experiential knowledge [46,64]. The development of freshwater aquaculture, including pond-based and cage-based systems, not only diversifies income but also mitigates the risks posed by unreliable rice harvests [67,78,79]. Informal collaborations with irrigation service providers, who often assist with water management through pump sharing or scheduling, represent a grassroots form of adaptive governance [67]. These practices, although small in scale, contribute to environmental mitigation by improving water efficiency, reducing soil degradation, and lowering the likelihood of extensive crop failure [48,49,67]. Together, these strategies illustrate how rural communities integrate environmental awareness into everyday agricultural decision-making to sustain both their livelihoods and the ecological balance of the lake ecosystem [48,56,61].

4.3. Diversified Income Sources for Flood Adaptation Strategies

Lower-income households allocate a larger share of their earnings to expenditure, with food being the primary expense. Households earning less than IDR 10 million annually often experience a financial deficit, while those earning IDR 10–15 million tend to have expenditures matching their income. To cover shortfalls, many rely on support from relatives, neighbors, social safety nets, or additional income from side jobs. These findings highlight the financial vulnerability of low-income households and the importance of external assistance in maintaining their livelihoods.

People utilize diverse income-generating tactics in response to the Tempe Lake region’s semiannual flooding and economic volatility. Rice cultivation serves as the principal livelihood, ensuring a consistent source of income. Many residents participate in fishing, yet its unpredictability frequently compels them to pursue alternate vocations, including carpentry, commerce, home-based businesses, construction, and service industry positions [59,60,61]. Numerous farmers adjacent to lakes remain categorized as low-income, and substantial spending on food and social necessities renders many vulnerable to poverty.

Managing extensive rice fields necessitates considerable labor for drying, storing, and processing harvests, which are frequently stored in excess to mitigate future uncertainties [58]. Income levels in fishing villages are typically inferior to those in agricultural communities. Farmers diversify into freshwater aquaculture, utilizing various fishing apparatuses to augment their financial stability. Conversely, some employ adaptable land tenure systems such as sharecropping and leasing to enhance agricultural yield despite erratic flooding [22,62]. These integrated methods enable communities to maintain their livelihoods and adjust to persistent environmental issues.

Freshwater aquaculture, with its potential to enhance food security and diversify livelihoods in the flood-prone Tempe Lake area, is hindered by the limited access to credit for smallholder businesses. Many households, especially those supplementing their income through fishing and aquaculture, are unable to invest in productive systems like cages or plastic-lined ponds [78,79]. This limitation hampers the growth of promising ventures such as Bungo fish farming, which could bring about economic and nutritional gains [58,78,79]. The lack of microcredit tailored to smallholder needs is a critical issue that restricts innovation and adaptive capacity. This is particularly true for vulnerable communities facing income instability and environmental shocks, who are in urgent need of support [67,78]. The expansion of microfinance and the provision of technical and market support are crucial steps toward realizing the full benefits of freshwater aquaculture as a long-term flood adaptation strategy [54,79].

Informal financial arrangements are standard among rice farmers in the Tempe Lake region due to limited access to formal credit. Farmers often depend on local partners, such as irrigation service providers and rice milling units (RMUs), who offer in-kind or cash advances to support farming needs [67]. These partners help finance inputs like seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation, with repayment usually made after harvest through shared produce or deductions from milling services [67]. Based on trust and mutual dependence, these systems offer flexible and timely support often unavailable through formal institutions (61,65). However, they can also create dependency and weaken farmers’ bargaining power, mainly when informal repayment terms include hidden charges [22,62,67].

4.4. Strengthening Livelihoods and Enhancing Community Resilience

Tempe Lake, an essential water resource in Wajo District, supports a community that relies significantly on agriculture and fisheries. Nonetheless, persistent flooding interrupts agricultural cycles, jeopardizes food security, and constrains economic stability. Residents utilize many livelihood methods, including aquaculture, alternative income-generating enterprises, and adaptable agricultural practices. A significant economic opportunity lies in the sustainable production of Beloso fish (Glossogobius sp.), an endemic species of cultural and commercial significance. Owing to its scarcity, sustainable management and alternative income streams are necessary. Expanding freshwater aquaculture, with the help of the government and the business sector, can improve resilience and long-term sustainability.

The Beloso fish (Glossogobius sp.), commonly referred to as ‘Bungo’, is a vital part of the local economy in Tempe Lake. Its economic value is further enhanced by local tourists who often purchase dried Bungo fish as a unique memento. This underscores the pressing need for sustainable methods to ensure its continued contribution to the local economy. However, due to its scarcity, the local community must explore alternative income sources, such as freshwater aquaculture, to maintain economic stability while meeting food requirements [78,80].

Freshwater aquaculture, mainly including the cultivation of species such as tilapia, common carp, and gourami in plastic-covered enclosures or ponds, presents a significant opportunity for income diversification in the region. Utilizing analogous methods in Bungo fish farming could yield a consistent revenue stream for local fishermen and bolster the overall economy of Tempe Lake. Due to its appropriateness for aquaculture, fish farming offers considerable prospects for commercial growth. Moreover, innovations in aquaculture technology and feed formulation may further improve production efficiency. In addition to its economic advantages, freshwater fish farming has the potential to enhance food security for local populations and operate as a tourism draw by providing visitors with access to fresh locally produced fish [81,82,83].

However, the efficacy of freshwater aquaculture relies on sufficient support systems. Government-supported microcredit initiatives designed for smallholder farmers and fishing communities are essential for facilitating financial access for business growth. These projects may augment farmers’ incomes, improve food security, and invigorate tourism in the Tempe Lake region, resulting in comprehensive economic expansion. Collaboration with the private sector is equally vital, as it may facilitate introducing innovative technology for aquaculture marketing, production, and technical training. This integrated support would facilitate the sustainable development of *Bungo* fish farming and other aquaculture enterprises, enhancing local livelihoods and the wider community [78,79,80].

Farmers in flood-prone areas adjust to seasonal variations by employing various livelihood methods. Households in Uganda’s lakeside villages utilize the contemporaneous, geographical, and temporal diversity of livelihoods and social capital to adapt to climate unpredictability. Similarly, locals around Lake Tempe in Indonesia fish during floods and cultivate the exposed lakebeds during dry seasons [38]. They conduct ceremonies and alter dwelling structures to accommodate seasonal variations [75]. Farmers in flood-affected regions of Hubei Province, China, exhibit differing livelihood resilience according to their methods, with those engaged in farming-led and part-time balanced approaches demonstrating superior adaptation to flood-related disturbances [84]. These studies underscore the significance of livelihood diversification, social networks, and adaptive practices in bolstering community resilience to recurrent floods and seasonal fluctuations in flood-prone regions.

5. Conclusions and Policy Implications

The Lake Tempe community’s creative strategy for meeting its food needs highlights its outstanding food security. Despite significant hurdles, such as persistent flooding and insufficient educational achievement, they have successfully persevered and flourished in the Lake Tempe environment. Their primary means of sustenance is rice production, supplemented by fishing, which serves as the household’s primary source of revenue. Their plan to enhance profits and ensure food accessibility involves extending paddy fields, usually achieved through rental contracts or profit-sharing agreements. Low-income farmers may diversify their activities by engaging in large-scale fishing operations or exploring new sectors to meet their family’s nutritional requirements. The primary objective of farmers is to ensure a reliable supply of essential nourishment for their families, with rice cultivation being paramount. This often results in the accumulation of grain reserves for daily use as a precautionary measure. Due to the abundance of materials around Tempe Lake, local production meets various gastronomic demands. Notwithstanding the persistent difficulties of floods and climate change, individuals actively utilize Lake Tempe’s abundant resources to enhance social and food security. Farmers can markedly diminish the risk of floods during the growing season by adopting improved rice cultivation management with abbreviated cropping cycles. Improved rice cultivation management, characterized by shortened cropping cycles, can substantially mitigate the risk of floods throughout the growing season. Furthermore, augmenting freshwater agriculture projects to bolster the community’s economic resilience in addressing issues is imperative. These efforts could provide an alternative source of income for people living near Tempe Lake. Cultivating Bungo fish through cage or plastic pond methods is improved by offering credit for smallholder business support, training, and fostering collaboration among farmer collectives and marketing organizations.

Limitations of the Study

This study provides valuable insights into household-level adaptation strategies to flooding in the Tempe Lake region; however, it has limitations. First, the research is based on cross-sectional data collected during a single survey period, which may not fully capture household adaptation’s seasonal and long-term dynamics. Second, while the mixed-methods approach enhanced the depth of the analysis, the qualitative component, though informative, was limited in scope due to time and resource constraints, with a relatively small number of key informant interviews. Third, the study’s focus on rice-farming households may limit the generalizability of the findings to other livelihood groups in the region, such as full-time fishers or urban residents. Finally, although the study explored institutional arrangements, it primarily examined informal mechanisms, and further investigation into formal governance structures and policy implementation would be beneficial. These limitations suggest that future research, with a longitudinal design and broader institutional analysis, holds the potential to significantly deepen our understanding of adaptation and resilience in flood-prone areas, offering hope for more effective strategies.