The Emerging Gig Economy and Sustainable Development in Sub-Saharan Africa

Abstract

Online work mediated by digital platforms is prevalent across various sectors, including food delivery, data entry, and professional services. Globally, gig work and the gig economy are growing with improved and increased Internet coverage and mobile phone sales. Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is no exception as the online economy expands, albeit unevenly across the many countries in the region. Given that the region is afflicted by poverty, unemployment, and underemployment (especially for youth), low rates of female workforce participation, and a dominant informal economy where labour standards are absent, it is appropriate to consider whether the gig economy can contribute to the Sustainable Development Goals linked to work. Drawing on secondary evidence, this review article considers the potential for the gig economy to contribute to jobs, income, employment standards, gender equity, and training and development. Despite the limited evidence from across the region and the evidence that many gig jobs are precarious and low-paid, it is suggested that gig working has the potential to contribute to the sustainable development of the region.

1. Introduction

This article evaluates the potential for the emerging and growing gig economy to support the UN Sustainable Development Goals in SSA. The gig economy is driven by technologies associated with the Fourth and Fifth Industrial Revolutions, including big data, digitization, cloud computing, artificial intelligence, machine learning, and mobile communications [1]. Prior research on the gig economy places it central to the future of work and the conditions and standards of work, mainly in the context of an advanced economy [2,3,4]. A key issue linked to this debate is whether the new technologies replace jobs and erode employment conditions or offer new jobs with improved employment conditions [5]. This broader debate is relevant to assessing the gig economy, especially in the context of SSA where additional jobs and improved job quality are central to supporting sustainable development. Through a review of academic and grey literature, the article will discuss the links between the evolving gig economy in SSA, job opportunities, decent work, and, indirectly, sustainable development. The key research questions are given as follows: How extensive are gig jobs in SSA? To what extent does the emerging gig economy support key SDGs linked to work across SSA? What policies can governments implement to support the emerging gig economy? The 2030 UN Agenda for Sustainable Development balances economic, environmental, and social priorities via the 17 Sustainable Development Goals [6]. The common thread that binds the 17 goals is work [7] in that it connects social partners, generates income, provides career and training opportunities, and supports living standards. Closely interlinked with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is the ILO’s decent work agenda “for the community of work looking at job creation, rights at work, social protection and social dialogue, with gender equality as a crosscutting objective“ [8]. Assessing the development potential of the emerging gig economy in SSA can be referenced against the SDGs and, by extension, decent work opportunities [9].

1.1. Sustainable Development Goals

The UN SDGs set an agenda for nations to follow towards realizing development and sustainability, improving living standards and the quality of life for all citizens [7]. The 17 SDGs were adopted by the UN in 2015 as a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure that, by 2030, all people will enjoy peace and prosperity. The 17 SDGs are integrated—they recognize that action in one area will affect outcomes in others and that development must balance social, economic, and environmental sustainability [10]. Improving labour market conditions and access offers direct and indirect contributions to the SDGs agenda. Reducing unemployment and improving skills and education contributes to reducing poverty (SDG 1) and hunger (SDG 2). In turn, income and dietary improvements contribute to improvements in health and well-being (SDG3). Other SDGs linked to improved labour market conditions include access to training and education, lifelong learning opportunities (SDG4), and enhanced gender equality (SDG5). SDG8 is highly relevant, promoting inclusive, sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment, decent work, and ensuring that workers in the informal sector are within administrative reach of social protection [11]. Within this article, the link between gig work and SDGs will be evaluated through a discussion of the contribution of gig work to job generation, decent work, gender equality, and training and development opportunities. Prior assessments have also considered the links to environmental sustainability [9]. The assessment will review the available research and secondary data. The approach is exploratory and general. Across SSA, there are significant differences in economic, social, and political conditions. Within SSA, systematic data and research are lacking across many countries, due to limited infrastructure and resources, incomplete data series, and a large informal sector, which limits the availability of accurate information [12]. Hence, the analysis is fragmentary but exploratory in informing further research and discussion.

1.2. Sub-Saharan Africa

SSA includes the African continent and offshore islands that are south of the Sahara Desert, covering 48 countries. The population is over one billion, with a profile skewed towards youth [13]. The region is economically and culturally diverse, with a long history of colonization linked to resource and population exploitation [14]. Nearly all European powers had established African colonies by the 19th century, and the countries established by lines on a map did not reflect national identities [15]. Many countries in the region obtained their independence in the 20th century. Despite the region being endowed with significant natural resources and a potential population dividend linked to its young population profile, it faces many challenges that undermine its potential in achieve SDGs. Poverty, illiteracy, civil wars, and food insecurity are significant challenges across the region [16]. Political instability and civil wars are expected to exacerbate the region’s economic and social vulnerability [17,18]. The region is home to many countries experiencing military conflict and subsequent humanitarian disasters [17]. Natural disasters from floods, fires, earthquakes, and epidemics are common. Further challenges include a lack of industry diversification in economies that heavily rely on mining and oil resources, as well as infrastructure shortages and failures in areas such as transport, energy, health, education, and communications [18]. Across SSA, there are significant disparities in economic development, living standards, resource endowment, health, and education. The World Bank [19] comments that SSA “is an extremely diverse region, composed of low, lower-middle, upper-middle, and high-income countries—22 of which are fragile or conflict-affected—and 13 small states characterized by a small population, limited human capital, and a confined land area. Boasting rich natural resources, the world’s largest free trade area, and a 1.2-billion-person market, the continent can forge a new development path, harnessing the potential of its resources and people.” Furthermore, conflict and violence across the region disrupt development, trade, living standards, and personal security, with over 400 million people estimated to be in extreme poverty [19]. However, despite these profound challenges, there are reasons for optimism within parts of the region, with several countries recording significant improvements in literacy, living standards, foreign investment, and falling poverty rates [16]. In 2023, the largest economies in SSA by GDP were Nigeria, South Africa, and Angola. In terms of GDP growth, the fastest-growing economies were Senegal, Niger, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo [20]. Nevertheless, increased growth rates did not translate into noticeable improvements in living standards, with seventy percent of workers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo living in poverty (less than USD 2.50 per day), despite recent increases in economic growth [20].

Throughout SSA, the informal economy dominates economic activity. The informal economy includes unregistered micro, family, and small business ventures that are generally excluded from administrative rules and labour regulations [21]. Self-employment and family work are dominant employment arrangements [22]. With informality comes minimal regulation and an absence of records of activity and employment [12]. Ref. [8] estimates that around two-thirds of SSA jobs are found within the informal economy. There are differences across SSA, with around 80 percent of non-agricultural employment in Kenya located in the informal sector and 15 percent of non-agricultural employment in Botswana [23]. Work within the informal economy is dominated by uncertainty, multiple job holdings, an absence of social benefits, labour market insecurity, and low incomes [24].

Within the SSA labour market, unemployment, unemployment, underemployment, and insecure employment are present throughout the region [25]. Notable challenges include high rates of unemployment and underemployment for youth, especially women; high rates of informal and irregular employment, and multiple job holdings; a working poverty rate of around 30 percent; and around one-quarter of youth in neither the labour market nor education [25,26]. Given these conditions, it is not surprising that the online economy and gig work are seen as having the potential to address these challenges [1].

1.3. The Gig Economy and Gig Work

Gig work encompasses online tasks, including data entry, professional services, crowdsourcing, and translation, as well as platform-mediated allocations of physical work such as transportation, home services, and taxi services. Gig work extends beyond the usually cited international platforms such as Uber, Bolt, and Deliveroo. Gig work encompasses online freelancing, crowdsourcing, and micro-tasking. Work engagements are short-term and involve performing specific tasks or gigs. Work is assigned by platforms that allocate work, match workers and clients, and organize payment [27]. The digital platforms encompass those offering services, skilled freelancing arrangements (such as translation, software design, marketing, data analysis, and architecture) to semi-skilled work (data entry, completing surveys, delivering parcels and takeaway food), and include workers selling their labour and skills, owners selling their surplus services, and those who are purchasing skills through online platforms such as via freelancing, crowdsourcing, and microwork [28]. The gig economy can support marketing and trading, match buyers and sellers, enable the sale of surplus goods and services, and support job search, matching, and employment [27].

In advanced economies, gig work is seen as part of the continuum of the historical erosion of the standard employment relationship through sub-contracting, agency working, and piecemeal work [29]. In the context of dominant informality in the labour market, such as in SSA, the issue is not that it is undermining regulated employment like in advanced economies, but rather that of whether the gig economy is creating new jobs, opportunities for women and unemployed youth, and contributing to improved employment conditions. Challenging labour market conditions, particularly for young people and women, have put the focus on the emerging gig economy to address these challenges and contribute to sustainable development.

The gig economy is diverse in terms of working arrangements, skill and infrastructure requirements, rewards, and income security [3]. At the top end, there are high-skill and professional services such as translation, editing, and IT services that are integrated into the global economy through global platforms. The gig economy has grown significantly in sales, clients, and workforce, with global platforms emerging in industries such as transport and taxi services, home services, and fast-food delivery [30]. Despite the absence of official data regarding the magnitude and scope of the gig economy, evidence suggests that the gig economy grew by around 30 percent during the COVID-19 pandemic, with an estimated sales volume of USD 455 billion [31]. Research in the USA [32] indicated that gig economy growth was driven by unemployment as job seekers sought online work, often involving limited hours and pay, as an alternative to unemployment. Digital global labour platform numbers continue to grow, increasing from 142 platforms in 2010 to over 750 platforms in 2020. The World Bank [19] estimates that the gig economy accounts for 12% of the global labour market. It is estimated that there over 435 million online gig workers globally [19].

Research on the conditions of gig working has been largely undertaken in advanced economy contexts, focusing on physical gig workers such as taxi services and food delivery workers [33]. These workers are visible and are generally attached to international gig platforms such as Uber and Deliveroo. In these studies, the focus is on working conditions [3], forms of worker control and management [28,34], and the coping responses of gig workers, including voice and resistance [33]. The focus is on a formal economy context with minimum employment conditions and where work conditions are assessed against the standards of a regulated employment model [35]. There is also a strand of research that places gig work in a context of freedom, choice, flexible career development, and entrepreneurial opportunities, where gig workers are independent contractors who can move across industries and assignments [36]. However, examining gig work in SSA involves a different set of contextual conditions and the absence of minimum and formal employment standards against which to evaluate the quality of gig work.

2. Materials and Methods

This article is speculative and involves a discussion of the potential of the emerging gig economy to contribute to sustainable development goals that are linked to employment conditions in SSA. Original data was not collected, nor was there experimentation. A systematic literature review or a meta-analysis of the topic was not undertaken. An iterative process involved searches of articles and reports that assessed the gig economy, the conditions of gig work, sustainable development, and studies of gig work in countries in sub-Saharan Africa. From the initial identification of relevant studies, the references cited in those studies were then assessed for relevance to the topic. The search included both academic and grey literature. Important research on the topic has been undertaken by the World Economic Forum, the International Labour Organization, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the African Development Bank. The foundation of this research is the secondary analysis of existing literature and reports. This approach is suitable for saving time and money, in this case, gathering data across nearly 50 countries. While Bryman and Bell [37] provide a case supporting secondary analysis supplemented by official databases, in this case, official data estimates are available through the ILO [25], but these are aggregated and vary in detail across the economies of the region. Hence, these are the reasons why our approach is speculative and based on incomplete information.

Any discussion of labour market developments in SSA faces significant information barriers. First, informal employment dominates the employment landscape across the region, and with this informality, there is a corresponding lack of data on employment conditions. This is compounded by the presence of multiple jobholding, as low and insecure incomes mean that multiple jobs are required to support an income that is sufficient to live on [12]. Second, detailed official labour market data is patchy across the region [12]. The ILO [25] provides an extensive database of national economic data; in many cases, this is based on estimates, rather than official national data. Third, civil wars and population displacement exclude data collection and research in several countries. Fourth, by its very nature, it is challenging to track gig work since it is not confined to a physical workplace [27]. Estimating the gig economy is problematic, even in advanced economies [3]. For the purposes of this discussion, the analysis draws on the limited prior research in academic journals and reports in the public domain. As a result, the evidence is limited, and many countries in SSA are excluded for reasons such as those outlined, leading to a restricted scope of reported studies in terms of country or industry coverage. While the discussion is exploratory, it addresses the potential for the gig economy to contribute to employment-linked SDGs.

3. Results

3.1. The Gig Economy in SSA

SSA is lagging behind other regions in terms of mobile Internet coverage and digital skill development, which are essential for leveraging the emerging technologies driving the gig economy. Mobile broadband coverage in SSA has been increasing, but the region has low Internet connectivity and significant usage gaps compared to other regions [38]. SSA had an estimated 489 million mobile subscribers in 2023 [38]. While the adoption of 4G technology has accelerated, 3G technology still dominates, resulting in slower Internet speeds. Despite these technical and infrastructure barriers, the emergence of gig work has enabled almost everyone to participate in profit or wage activities through global gig working platforms such as Airbnb, Deliveroo, TaskRabbit, and Uber. Access to gig work is determined by availability, capability, IT infrastructure, and mobile access, as well as, in some instances, specialist equipment such as motorbikes or cars [39]. Gig working enables easy entry into jobs and businesses, providing opportunities for developing new firms, industries, jobs, and careers [40].

There are no official estimates of the extent and composition of gig work in SSA [27]. Except for South Africa and Botswana, systematic and reliable labour market data are scarce throughout the region due to the prevalence of informal and undocumented work as well as multiple job holding [41]. Workers’ participation in providing transport, food delivery, and domestic services demonstrates the visibility and presence of gig work. Anecdotal reports suggest that gig work has a growing presence in SSA, and it takes many forms, and is often linked to the informal economy and piecemeal work [12]. In 2018, there were 283 digital platforms with over 4.8 million registered gig workers located in eight countries across SSA, and by 2020, the number of digital platforms increased to 432 [42]. Nigeria and South Africa, the two largest economies in SSA, lead the region with the most estimated digital platforms and gig workers. Nigeria has around 3 million registered workers and 90 platforms, and South Africa has 1.3 million registered workers and over 90 platforms. In contrast, Rwanda and Tanzania had 24 thousand registered workers and less than 30 platforms [42]. These figures underestimate the extent of gig workers as the figures only include registered workers, and many platforms and apps are localized and tied to the informal sector. However, many workers have multiple registrations across platforms, while platform registration does not mean that they are available to take gig assignments [43]. Apart from well-known global gig platforms, there has been a proliferation of local platforms across SSA in transport services (Shanxi, Oga Taxi), professional services (Fix Chap for home and office repairs; Dirlance for freelance professional services), household services (Sweep South), asset sharing (Jovago), and job matching (Jobberman). Global platform ownership and revenues are transferred to providers located in the Global North, as are many high-paying professional online assignments [43]. Crowdsourcing allows a large number of participants to contribute to a large project through providing funding, voluntary labour (such as for Wikipedia), or labour services. Crowdsourcing employment platforms are present in the region, such as Amazon Mechanical Turk. Through crowdsourcing, many participants, usually freelancers, contribute small components or gigs to a larger project. The platform can allocate work to fit the project’s needs, ranging from repetitive tasks such as data entry to professional consulting tasks.

For online digital service jobs, the USA, India, and the Philippines dominate jobs in this sector, including a range of activities from data entry to professional services [3]. Very few jobs in this segment are in SSA and these are confined to South Africa, Nigeria, and Kenya. These countries lead the region in the number of mobile subscribers. A similar limited presence is observed across crowdsourcing global platforms, with SSA exhibiting limited participation and a higher share of unskilled gig jobs compared to other regions. In contrast, the share of high-skill jobs in SSA was lower than in other regions [3].

Beyond the low Internet coverage and significant usage gaps, there is a digital divide in SSA, with the gap being determined by Internet access and digital skills. In turn, underlying factors such as location, age, education, and access to resources contribute to the digital divide [44,45]. Without supporting infrastructure and knowledge, the scope of the gig economy will be confined by demography, education, and location. The digital divide highlights the inequalities surrounding access, affordability, service quality, and the skills required to use information technology resources [46]. This limits the gig economy’s potential to contribute to improved living standards.

In this section, we discuss the extent to which the economy is contributing to selected SDGs. The evidence is anecdotal and incomplete. Many countries in the region are not included in the evaluations of the gig economy. However, despite the absence of systematic and extensive data, the analysis suggests that, at the margins and in a limited number of countries, the gig economy has the potential to contribute to SDGs.

3.2. Has the Gig Economy Generated New Jobs?

The gig economy is driven by new technology that is both disruptive and creative [1,47]. The gig economy involves job loss, job substitution, and industry disruption, as in the example of the taxi and delivery industry. It also augments existing jobs by shifting service delivery to online apps. App-based systems, such as Uber, offer customers a range of choices and services, while traditional taxi businesses face competition from ride-sharing services like Uber. At the same time, they can apply technology to augment and improve the service they offer customers. In the gig economy, technologies augment existing businesses and jobs through upskilling through online apps. Existing services are augmented and disrupted by new technologies; hence, the extent of job creation is difficult to establish, as there are new jobs, job losses, and an augmentation of existing jobs. However, online service delivery through data collection and analysis, freelancing, crowd-work, and professional services provides access to a global economy and job generation potential. In SSA, certain forms of gig work create new jobs rather than just repacking existing jobs in a new form, as may be the case in developed countries with processes such as food delivery and transport service provision. Indeed, there is potential for gig work in SSA to provide employment opportunities for young workers, many of whom are currently unemployed or underemployed [43]. Gig work offers well-paid and professional online work at the high-skill end of the online working spectrum, but the available evidence suggests that few of these jobs are found in SSA [12]. Nevertheless, the World Bank [23] points to the sustained growth of online work, including freelancing and crowdsourcing. The rise of gig work underpinned by digitalization generates opportunities and advantages where work can be conducted from any location nationally or internationally [48]. Online gig work has an extended workforce pool that extends beyond local labour markets so that workers can select jobs beyond the local labour market that provides possibilities for new jobs combined with flexibility and autonomy [49]. Similarly, in the product market, gig work opens opportunities for new businesses and for accessing a broader, more expansive market together with access to skills and expertise that may be absent in the local labour market. It is not only an issue in online mediated job generation, but there is also the potential for online generated sales. Gig economy development has not only nurtured job growth but supported new business startups and development, especially SMEs [50]. The augmentation of existing businesses and the creation of new business opportunities is a potential source of business and employment growth [51]. The benefits of the gig economy include the potential for more jobs, inclusivity and accessibility for those with access to technology, its flexibility in being combined with other activities, and the potential for access to a broader regional and global market [50,52].

Despite the potential benefits, the evidence of new jobs being generated by the gig economy, as opposed to substitution, and augmentation suggests that online work that crosses national boundaries is growing and provides workers from SSA access to global labour markets. While the gig economy is open in terms of entry, across SSA, barriers to access are linked to skills, infrastructure, and location. While it is possible to track apps and online registrations, this information does not identify jobs and assignments. It must be weighed against multiple platform registrations, limited assignments, and multiple job holdings, which are common throughout SSA. The limited and anecdotal evidence points to a digital workforce share of 8 percent in South Africa and 4 percent in Mozambique but less than one percent for most of SSA [53]. These estimates do not identify additional net jobs. Younger workers (those aged under 30 years old), especially in urban areas and with educational qualifications, are more likely than older workers to have access to online gig jobs [19]. Since SSA has a young population demographic with extensive youth unemployment and underemployment [27], the gig economy and its associated platforms offer the potential to address the job shortage and the absence of sustainable careers for young job seekers in the region [54]. The available evidence suggests that gig work is often combined with education or other jobs [19] (World Bank, 2023a). At one level, gig work offers opportunities for youth; however, the evidence suggests irregular and short-term assignments and the combination of gig work with education or work in the informal economy [19]. This suggest that, for many youth participants, gig work supports other activities and is not seen as a career choice.

3.3. Does Gig Work Provide Access to Living Incomes?

By its very nature, gig work is insecure, assignments are irregular, and generating a living income may require multiple gig registrations or linking gig work with other forms of short-term work [3]. Few gig workers in SSA have regular assignments and full-time incomes [19]. Gig work is irregular and often combined with other forms of employment to generate a living income [27]. The nature of gig work is demand-dependent and task-driven, hence the unpredictability of assignments, and the short-term nature of assignments and income is a feature of the gig economy [55]. Anwar and Graham [43] highlight the precariousness and vulnerability of gig workers in SSA. Short and unpredictable hours result in unpredictable and irregular pay [43] and the need for multiple platform registration and combining gig work with other activities. On an hourly basis, the evidence suggests that gig work pays more than equivalent work in the informal sector [19]; however, in both cases, irregularity and short hours contribute to low incomes. Except for online professional gig work, the evidence suggests that gig workers receive low incomes, irregular assignments, and delays in payment, whilst a stable and long-term career in gig work is the exception [43]. In the context of an extensive informal sector and multiple job holdings, gig work offers another form of insecure employment to add to a portfolio of insecure jobs that are present in SSA [27]. Gig work does not generate a living or predictable income.

3.4. Does Gig Work Generate Jobs and Opportunities for Women?

Women account for 45 percent of online gig jobs globally [19]. Gig work in SSA has the potential to increase women’s access to the labour market. Apart from physical work intermediated by platforms, online work, including freelancing and crowdsourcing, is invisible, and hence the potential for gender discrimination is reduced [19]. Gig work, especially online platform work, is not gendered and barriers to entry are lower, especially where women have domestic and caring responsibilities. Gig work offers potential flexibility in organizing the times and duration of access, working from home, plus the potential for career development, especially in professional freelancing [19].

A World Bank [56] study of online female gig work across 14 countries, including Nigeria, South Africa, and Kenya, found that females accounted for 42 percent of online work, as opposed to an average workforce share of 32 percent in the surveyed countries. In countries in SSA, the female shares of the workforce were 51 percent (South Africa), Kenya (47 percent), and 22 percent (Nigeria). The survey revealed that online gig working offered flexibility over working hours, improved access to jobs, training, and career development opportunities, and, importantly, access to credit and loans. These findings support the potential for online gig work in eroding gender barriers to workforce participation and supporting career development. The study reported that women’s participation in gig work tends to follow lines of gender segregation, with women dominating data entry, clerical, sales, and the provision of domestic services. The gig work participation rates of women are uneven globally, with the share being greater in advanced economies. Several countries were identified (Malaysia, Pakistan) as having programs that supported women’s access to and participation in gig work. Given supporting infrastructure, gig work is accessible, flexible, safe, and opens up opportunities in a wider labour market.

The World Bank [56] study revealed that women have greater opportunities and access to jobs in the online economy, as well as the potential to acquire skills that could support future employment. Moreover, gig working offers flexible working time arrangements and the potential to combine work with caring [51,56]. However, the findings also revealed that 60 percent of women worked for less than 10 hours per week, and 55 percent of female online workers’ jobs were secondary jobs, that is, the gig work was typically part of a portfolio of insecure jobs. While the access to and the flexible conditions of employment were favourable for women, the jobs were unlikely to be full-time or linked to a career.

3.5. Does Gig Work Improve Employment Standards?

Decent work encompasses conditions linked to minimum pay, access to standard benefits such as sick leave and holiday leave, meeting minimum safety standards, and having rights to collectivization and representation. Critical research on the emerging gig economy in advanced economies evaluates gig work against those standards that apply to wage labour in the countries studied [3,57]. The findings point to insecurity, low and irregular pay, limited protections, algorithmic control systems, and general exclusion from standard employment benefits [3]. SSA is dominated by informal working conditions with few labour standards. Unlike advanced economies, the erosion of standards associated with formal work is not an issue since minimum labour standards are absent. The evidence suggests that the jobs related to the gig economy in SSA are associated with precarious employment conditions with task and piecemeal work assignments, are short-term and require being on call, do not receive non-wage benefits, and are outside of representation and bargaining processes [12,58].

However, gig economy platforms have the potential to support labour standards as the platforms that drive the gig economy offer the potential for e-formalization through the deployment of technology to support basic employment standards [59]. The electronic registration of workers and registration of financial transactions are being built into standards for the global workforce across multinational platforms [60,61]. The electronic tracking of gig work and gig workers supports surveillance and labour control [51,52], but it also makes interactions between employers, workers, and the government more transparent [3,61]. This also supports formalization processes from taxation to compliance with minimum labour conditions that are embedded in platforms [60]. The potential for improved conditions through gig working further advances when the platforms sign up for sustainability and decent work protocols that afford workers minimum employment standards [62]. This potential exists where platforms are headquartered in advanced economies with protocols surrounding international labour standards and sustainability reporting, such as those promoted by NGOs [63,64]. The Fairwork framework [64] for digital work platforms provides a frame of reference. It highlights the opportunities available to assist regulators and gig workers to hold digital platform providers accountable in support of decent work conditions [64]. The Fairwork Project incorporates five principles of fair work for gig working: fair pay, fair conditions, fair contracts, fair management, and fair representation. Several international NGOs include platforms that promulgate decent work standards globally, including SSA. However, in SSA, many of the emerging gig platforms are locally owned. They are not subject to minimum labour standards, nor are they part of international networks promoting decent work standards [61].

Regarding worker voice and representation, the informal economy excludes formal trade unions, representation, and bargaining. Being self-employed and working in family businesses can limit one’s voice and representation. However, in the gig economy, there are mechanisms for voice and collective action as the technology supporting gig work also supports voice and mobilization through information sharing on social media. Collectivization can extend beyond the traditional location occupation, industry, and location boundaries. Unions and voice can become virtual, and organizations can be coordinated across industry and national borders. This is already occurring through international organizations such as the Freelancers Union [61]. There is the potential for gig workforce mobilization (sharing complaints and work opportunities, coordination, and giving feedback) using social media platforms [61,65]. For example, social media platforms could support mass messaging to avoid specific employers (employers identified as being irresponsible in their operations) and encourage workers to organize and boycott exploitative platforms [61,66]. Within SSA, there is evidence of collectivization and strikes by online drivers in South Africa, Nigeria, and Kenya [67]. The digital economy supports online organization, collectivization, and collective action. The evidence is fragmentary, but it indicates isolated pockets of collective action and bargaining in South Africa, Kenya, and Nigeria [43,51].

Against the absence of standards in the informal economy, the emergence of gig work presents an opportunity to improve labour standards [68]. The conditions of informality apply to gig work across SSA. Low and irregular incomes, an absence of nonwage conditions, labour rights, and collective representation. Precarity and vulnerability are the norm [43]. However, gig work can offer higher pay, non-wage benefits, limited rights, and opportunities for collective action and representation. The Fair Work movement and the signing up of international platforms to fair work standards represent one avenue towards formalizing gig work, together with the introduction of decent work conditions.

3.6. Does Gig Work Provide Training and Development Opportunities?

Low attachment and high labour turnover limit investment in training. However, basic skills linked to effectively engaging with the platforms must be developed online. One of the major attractions for youth and women to the online service economy is the potential to access skills and develop a global career [19,44]. With the growing connectivity and mobile phone apps across SSA, the informal economy can now access online programs that support businesses to access professional services such as accounting, marketing, and skill development. The digital economy provides opportunities to access education and training programs from anywhere and at any time. At the same time, the online training and education sector provides jobs in the professional services sector. By developing the skills of small business entrepreneurs, online training programs support SMEs that are central to the informal economy and support the growth and development of SSA. Workers and small businesses can access and develop social networks and mentoring support that can be found in the formal sector.

In high-end freelancing and professional services, online careers can be developed to establish long-term attachment with specialist online platforms [51]. At this end of the spectrum, attachment and training are required, at least in terms of familiarity with operating systems. However, in SSA, there are barriers to participating in and taking advantage of the opportunities offered by the digital economy, especially professional online work. The weaknesses in education and training, plus connectivity problems, limit the potential to take advantage of the training and development opportunities offered by the digital economy, which, in turn, excludes many regions and sections of the population from high-end professional freelancing opportunities [27].

This evidence suggests that rudimentary training linked to induction and familiarization with online platforms is present across the gig economy, so there is an element of training attached to all those who engage in online work. The World Bank [19,56] surveys revealed that access to training and credentials was one of the major attractions for youth and women participating in online crowd work and freelancing. However, given the evidence that gig work is mainly secondary and fragmentary, the absence of a career path suggests that training is not available beyond meeting induction requirements.

4. Discussion

In examining the benefits and risks of online gig work in SSA, Graham et al. [61]. highlight the intricacies and complex reality of gig workers in SSA, such as long working hours, the absence of a social contact, discrimination, and low wages. International projects linked to tracking and supporting decent work conditions in gig work, such as The Fairwork South Africa and Fairwork Kenya ratings, suggest that platform workers continue to experience insecure work conditions across SSA [69]. Evolving empirical and anecdotal evidence on the growing gig economy and gig work literature within the SSA context highlights several themes, including precarity, flexibility, and informality [43,62,70]. The World Bank [19] study of global gig work concluded that gig work is growing and accounts for 12 percent of all jobs; that the growth is more significant in the Global South; that gig work provides opportunities for youth and women who are facing challenges in accessing traditional employment; that gig work is largely unregulated and operates outside of labour standards; and that the gig economy can offer opportunities to build digital skills, increase income-earning opportunities, and support social protection for informal workers [71].

For SSA, the gig economy offers the potential and opportunities for jobs, new business start-ups, and national development. Improved Internet connectivity and speeds can lead to more jobs in traditional sectors, platform-mediated jobs, and potential opportunities for the unemployed and underemployed [12,50,72]. The evidence suggests small steps towards employment formalization and improved labour standards across gig work platforms in South Africa and Kenya [53]. Gig working is a global phenomenon, and it is relatively easy to gain entry, offering opportunities for new and flexible working arrangements, as well as for transforming business operations and delivering new business opportunities [12]. In SSA, there are several challenges facing the gig economy and its potential; these include access due to limited connectivity, access to hardware and digital skills, and language barriers, where global crowd working requires proficiency in nonlocal languages, and the fact many countries in the region face profound poverty, instability, and infrastructure shortages. As a result of these barriers, older workers, rural populations, those with limited education, and those in countries with political instability are at risk of digital exclusion [44].

There are several ways that gig work can support decent work conditions and contribute to sustainable development in SSA—first, access to global jobs and training systems. With global platforms and professional freelancing, there is the potential for additional jobs for SSA workers that are linked to improved employment conditions. Second, access to decent work conditions through accreditation and minimum conditions must be incorporated by global platforms. Coalitions between platforms and NGOs have introduced a rating and accreditation system for platforms to support and develop basic employment standards under the decent gig work campaign around fair work conditions—pay, management, conditions, contracts, and reputation [62,73]. Third, software applications associated with gig work support skill development and training that extends beyond gig work and can be accessed across the economy [73]. Fourth, flexible employment conditions and enhanced access to youth and women provide job generation and equity benefits from gig jobs [12]. Fifth, the infrastructure necessary to undertake gig work also allows gig workers to collectivize, organize, and achieve voice and representation in sectors and countries where making their voice heard is otherwise difficult [43]. Sixth, governments can support decent work conditions by providing gig workers with the standards enjoyed by employees in countries like South Africa that have an active labour code [58].

5. Conclusions

The evidence on gig work, the extent of its existence, and its working conditions in SSA is limited. There are significant disparities across the region, an absence of reliable data, and a small research base confined to a limited number of countries, including South Africa, Kenya, and Nigeria. Many countries in the region have limited labour market data and an absence of gig economy activity due to limited infrastructure, ongoing wars, and civil unrest. In a region dominated by the informal economy, the emerging gig economy offers jobs, opportunities, and access to components of decent working conditions. While the evidence suggests that the gig economy has not developed to the same extent as in other regions, such as Asia, and the share of SSA with online professional work is low, the evidence indicates limited growth across many countries in the region. Gig work remains embedded in precarity, informality, and multiple job-holding conditions. Still, it does offer the potential to support key sustainable development objectives.

The 2023 UN Sustainable Development Report [74] noted that, across Africa, extreme poverty continues to increase, with 20 percent of the region facing hunger and significant infrastructure limitations, particularly in terms of access to safe drinking water and sanitation facilities. Supporting sustainable development goals through the gig economy requires more extensive and faster networks, extending access in rural areas, and improving education and IT skills. Reducing the digital divide across the population, by age, location, and educational qualifications, remains a challenge throughout the region. Platform registration processes could incorporate worker rights and conditions. NGOs have a role in rating and informing workers, consumers, and governments about the conditions present across platforms.

The gig economy will continue to expand globally and in SSA. How can governments, international aid agencies, and NGOs support the continued development of the gig economy and, at the same time, support its potential to assist in realizing SDGs? The discussion highlights the importance of reliable, extensive, and accessible infrastructure. Technology is evolving to support the online economy and its access across the community [50]. The following is the requirement to support accessibility not only in terms of access and hardware, but also in possessing the ability to engage with Internet technology. The digital divide is a challenge, but with mobile phone ownership increasing across SSA, online support and training will improve accessibility. Here, the task is to ensure that access to mobile phones and computers is maximized [46]. Governments and agencies can provide ratings and advice on gig working platforms, extending the services that are evolving. These can inform potential workers of their rights and conditions [62,66]. Subsequently, governments can develop a system that provides a rating of platforms, with different ratings according to the conditions and recorded experiences of those who have used the platforms for gig work. These are suggestions that can be implemented without major costs and in a short period of time. They will support the continued growth in gig working but at the same time address the conditions of gig working.

Echoing these suggestions, the World Bank ([56], p. 11) suggests that “Governments can use the promise of the gig economy to build digital skills, increase income-earning opportunities, and engage with platforms to expand social protection coverage of informal workers through carefully designed targeted programs and improved access to digital infrastructure and payment options, while also safeguarding against peril and protecting gig workers through modern forms of collective bargaining.”

This review is limited by the absence of systematic data on the labour market and the gig economy in the region. The reported evidence is fragmentary, confined to reported case studies, and confined to the largest economies within the region. Despite these limitations, there is the potential for the emerging gig economy to contribute, however marginally, towards achieving several key sustainable development objectives. Future research could focus on the conditions of gig work, including training and career development, for specific groups such as women and youth; organization and representation across platforms; conditions supporting access to professional gig work; and programs that provide access to gig work for older age groups and those in rural areas. Building up case study material on gig work in the region, in the absence of extensive and accurate data, will inform research and policy development.