“Polish People Are Starting to Hate Polish People”—Uncovering Emergent Patterns of Electoral Hostility in Post-Communist Europe
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Research and Operational Questions
- (1)
- What constitutes an ‘atmosphere’ of electoral hostility?
- (2)
- What emotional and experiential cycles lead to electoral hostility?
- (3)
- How do citizens react to electoral hostility?
- (4)
- To what extent is electoral hostility constructed as a cycle of perpetual attitudinal and behavioral deterioration?
1.2. Approach
2. Analytical Framework
2.1. Theoretical Background
2.1.1. Explaining Overlapping Realities with Two Competing Analytical Models: Affective Polarisation (AP) and Electoral Hostility (EH)
- is not based on partisanship,
- is an explicit model of out-group negativity (rather than assuming underlying in-group identity behind out-group hatred), and
- primarily affects democratically dissatisfied voters rather than partisans.
2.1.2. Models of Socialization and Social Learning
2.2. Theoretical Expectations
3. Historical and Political Context
- (1)
- how the country moved from transition to transformation over the past three decades,
- (2)
- the emergence of the currently in place bipolar party system,
- (3)
- key societal and ideological fracture lines and elements of social blame and scapegoating, and
- (4)
- how this has shaped into a specific context under which the 2020 presidential election took place.
3.1. From Transition to Transformation
3.2. The Emergence of a Bipolar Party System
3.3. Fracture Lines, Social Blame, and Scapegoating
3.4. The 2020 Presidential Election
4. Data and Methodology
4.1. Research Design
4.1.1. Family Focus Groups
4.1.2. Semi-Structured Interviews
4.2. Participants and Sample
4.3. Analytical Strategy
- (a)
- Unanimous trends that either confirm or contradict my theoretical expectations,
- (b)
- Omitted trends, claims that none of the participants made even though they could be expected to occur,
- (c)
- Lines of fracture, elements originating respondent splits,
- (d)
- Exemplars, quotes which seem highly representative of a trend,
- (e)
- Outliers, quotes which seem to significantly diverge from the perceptions of other participants, and which thus deserve consideration.
4.4. Ethical Considerations and Conducting Research Amidst a Pandemic
5. Analysis and Discussion
5.1. Characterising a Climate of Electoral Hostility within Polish Society and More Intimate Spheres
5.1.1. Metaphors of War
“People are facing each other at a front, like they are at a war […] They would be ready to attack each other and go at each other like dogs.”
“You can feel that tension in the air. This negative aggressive behavior at play is evident when looking back on our Independence Day on November 11th. People set things on fire.”(1F220817)
“There have been violent aggressions on both sides, be they physical or verbal. Two opposite extremes have started to emerge.”(1M221126)
“Poland is an embarrassment. I am really embarrassed when the Polish president speaks. It’s a disaster, really. PiS is very close to fascism in a way. That is exactly what it is.”(2M440038)
5.1.2. A Tense Atmosphere
“Poland is an angry child.”(2M230039)
“People insult one another, it becomes very vulgar.”(1M221126)
“It’s insults everywhere. Left-wing guys calling right-wing guys xxx or right-wing guys calling left wing guys xxx.”(1M221126)
“Relationships are more heated than before.”(1F220817)
“Now it’s two segments of the population fighting one another.”(1M221126)
“Now, the fault line goes across society.”(2M44038)
“The political scene is divided. There is society and then, there is ‘the others’.”(2M440038)
“Generally speaking, yes, people are split. This means that there is a lot of hate, physically and over social media.”(1M181230)
“If it was PO, I would feel the same.”(2M440038)
“Me? I’m a snob, I think they are all wrong!”(2M260053)
5.1.3. Hostility within Family and Intimate Spheres
“When it comes to families, they are trying to avoid meeting.”(1M221126)
“Many family relationships in Poland have totally collapsed.”(2M55045)
“Whenever we have family meetings, we have to keep politics out of it.”(2F230040)
“Especially in making new friendships. The first thing you are going to wonder is what political party they vote for.”(2M220056)
5.2. Perceptions, Experiences, and Mirror Perceptions of Hostility
5.2.1. Perceptions of Opposite Voters
Social, Demographic, and Cultural Characterization of Opposite Voters
From Derogatory Comments to Insults
“They are troglodytes!”(2M550045)
“I don’t mean to be rude, but they don’t dress well.”(2M230047)
“They are thugs!”(1M221126)
“The traitors!”(2M440038)
“Are swear words included on that list? […] I’d call them ‘fuckers’!”(2F230040)
“They are aggressive and act like animals because they have half-brains.”(1F220714)
“I don’t know where they come from. Maybe from the moon, maybe from Mars, maybe from a psychiatric hospital.”(1F550613)
“I don’t feel threatened because they are stupid, and I don’t think that anybody who is stupid can threaten me.”(2M440038)
5.2.2. Experiencing Electoral Hostility
Experiences of Societal Hostility
“We got into political fights, so many times.”(2F230040)
“They will bully me into believing that they are right.”(2M440038)
“Literally, she insulted me.”(2F220036)
“He kind of attacked me right away.”(2M440038)
“My husband was at a dinner where he disagreed with someone on an issue […]. He got up, and my husband was convinced that he was going to hit him.”(1F550511)
“Yes, we always fight, viciously, every time.”(1M480307)
Experiences of Electoral Hostility within Families: An Awkward Uncle
“I have friends who don’t meet up at Christmas because of political divides.”(1F550511)
“My uncle on my dad’s side votes for PiS […]. I think it’s harder for my dad […] because he does not have a relationship with his brother anymore.”(2M2200326)
“It’s only with my brothers and sisters with whom we can have more or less civilized debates.”(1M221126)
“At the dinner table, between the drunk uncle and the grandmother, there is always going to be trouble.”(2M2200329)
“I have a funny uncle.”(2F220064)
“Everybody has a funny uncle!”(2F220048)
5.2.3. Mirror Perceptions
“I don’t have an enemy, but I certainly am theirs.”(2M440038)
“They hate us!”(1F220714)
“So clearly, I’m a threat, an abomination, and an insult to God.”(2F230031)
“They would probably not like me either.”(1F220102229)
“Please, do not make devils out of people who have different views than leftists.”(1M220037)
“He even felt disgusted by me I think.”(2M440038)
“I think PO voters treat PiS voters like they’re a joke, like they are not people with whom they can have a sensible, reasonable conversation with.”(2M440038)
“I attack them, but because they attack me.”(2M440038)
“PiS voters see us probably the same way as we see them.”(1M181230)
5.3. An Ever-Deteriorating Cycle of Hostile Emotions
“I don’t understand what their thought process is.”
“I am frustrated and really hopeless.”(2F620065)
“It’s so frustrating!”(2M440038)
“I am pissed off; internally I am screaming!”(2F220036)
“It simply irks me.”(1M221126)
“If I saw a beautiful girl with a Duda 2020 t-shirt, I would not even feel sad but angry. I would be pissed off that she’s in the same room as me!”(2M20035)
“I was being very sarcastic, and mean, and aggressive because I was angry.”(2F230031)
“It’s emotional. We do fight and argue.”(1M480307)
“Even under communism, they weren’t that primitive.”(2M440038)
“They are troglodytes!”(2M550045)
“Yeah? Well, they can say whatever they want!” [said with a dismissive tone](1M221126)
“I would be disgusted by them.”(2F220064)
“A couple days later, my friend told me that one of the guys we hung out with at poker night was a PiS supporter. Something tilted in me, I was like ugh, eww, ehh, I’d probably have a yikes moment if this happened again.”(1M231228)
“No, don’t touch me. I feel disgusted!”(2F220064)
“I have disgust and dislike towards them, not because of their political views but because of what I think they are as human beings.”(1M231228)
5.3.1. Direct Identification of Hateful Feelings
“I hate them, I hate the party, there is no party that I hate more!”(1M181230)
5.3.2. Hateful References
“Kaczyński is the devil!”(1M181230)
“I want to rip their heads off!”(2F220036)
5.4. Consequences of Electoral Hostility from Avoidance to Aggression and Hopelessness
“We don’t talk about it. The topic just doesn’t come up.” (1F450306) “The topic just doesn’t exist.”(1M480307)
“If I hear people talking about politics at a party, I just leave the conversation. I don’t feel like talking about it […] so avoid these conversations.”.(1F220714)
“Everyone avoids it because you don’t want to get into a war, hahaha.”(2M440038)
“With friends, I guess it’s easier because you can dissociate yourself from friends more easily; whereas family, they’re just there.”(2F240055)
“I would be more eager to see my cousin if he didn’t have the views he currently has.”(2F230031)
“There are some people I’ve stopped following without blocking them as such.”
“I avoid them. I don’t want to speak to them. I choose not to speak to them.”(2M440038)
“I don’t want these people. I am very selective about my entourage […] and I don’t want these people around me.”(2F220036)
“I’m done arguing. […] I prefer to ignore them.”(2M440038)
“I don’t feel like sharing anything other than pavement and street with them.”(1M240818)
“I cannot speak to these people. […] I cannot stay in the same room as them.”(2M440038)
“One of the main triggers for me to leave Poland.”(1M181230)
“Haha, well, I guess now it’s time to emigrate!”(2M220032)
“I actually know people who moved away because they were just scared.”(2F220048)
“They can all f*** off. I can’t be bothered!”(1M221126)
“Marry someone from PiS? Jesus!”(2M440038)
“If my younger sister dated a PiS voter, I would have an intervention, I would tell her that she cannot date him anymore!”(2M0035)
Hopelessness
“It’s sad, but that’s the way it is.”(1M221126)
“So now, she feels particularly emotional about things. When PiS-related news come on, she will cry, she will scream.”(2F230031)
“It was hard, it’s been hard for a long time. It cost me certain mental health problems such as depression.”(2M2200326)
“It is just depressing for us.”(2F220036)
“You are attacked by these things, every week, constantly.”(2M440038)
“I feel sad, disgusted, flabbergasted.”(2M2200326)
“I am really hopeless.”(2F620065)
“Despair. That’s what it is.”(2M550045)
“I am a foreigner in my own land. These are very strong feelings, again.”(2M2200326)
“Is [electoral hostility] an increasing reality in Poland? Absolutely!”(2M230039)
“It will certainly deteriorate.”(2M55045)
“I am afraid things might get even worse. Things will get pretty bad.”(2M440038)
“Things will get worse, absolutely. I think we have not seen about half of what’s to come. We are in for some really nasty surprises.”(2M220033)
“The difference between attacking somebody’s views and somebody as a group, is not present in Poland anymore. This is very dangerous.”(2M210042)
“Political aggression is certainly accelerating.” (2M10042) “I don’t know where we are going anymore.”(2F220036)
“There is no emergency exit.”(1F551024)
6. Conclusions
- (1)
- avoidance (which can mean avoiding talking politics with disagreeable people, avoiding disagreeable people altogether (on social media or in real life), or even being tempted to leave the country),
- (2)
- aggression, and
- (3)
- hopelessness
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Analytical Theme | Theoretical Expectation | ||
---|---|---|---|
1 | There is a climate of electoral hostility in Poland. | 1.1 | There is a palpable sense of electoral hostility within Polish society; it is acknowledged by different types of voters (regardless of age, partisan preferences, etc.) |
1.2. | Beyond broader societal spheres, this sense of electoral hostility will progressively penetrate intimate spheres such as families and friendships. | ||
1.3. | In a context of changing party system and alignments, I expect the political tension occurring in Poland to fit the theoretical model of EH over that of AP. | ||
2 | Electoral hostility in Poland emerges as a result of hostile perceptions, experiences, and mirror perceptions. | 2.1. | Many citizens will develop hostility towards opposite voters as a result of associating them with negative personal, moral, or psychological characteristics. |
2.2. | The second source of negative thoughts towards other voters will be either direct or reported experiences of confrontation | ||
2.3. | The third route to electoral hostility will come as a result of individuals believing that the other camp displays animosity towards them. This mirror perception will act as a catalyst for hostility. | ||
3 | Electoral hostility in Poland follows a cycle of increasingly strong negative emotions towards fellow citizens due to their electoral preferences. | 3.1. | The mildest form of electoral hostility will be framed as a lack of understanding towards opposite voters. |
3.2. | A number of people will express a sense of frustration towards other voters. | ||
3.3. | At the next level, individuals may refer to their anger towards those who vote differently from them. | ||
3.4. | The fourth emotional stage of electoral hostility will lead voters to use narratives of disgust and/or contempt when talking about those who vote for parties they dislike. | ||
3.5. | Finally, the people who have reached the final stage in the emotional cycle of hostility will refer to other voters with a sense of hatred | ||
4 | Electoral hostility in Poland will lead to reactions of avoidance, aggression, and hopelessness. | 4.1. | A number of people will express preferences for avoiding contact with citizens with antagonistic views. Among these preferences, we will find “actively ignoring them” or “avoiding contact and/or political conversations altogether”. |
4.2. | By contrast, many citizens may opt for confrontation and express feelings of aggression towards the opposite camp. | ||
4.3. | Finally, in some cases, electoral hostility could lead many Polish citizens to feel a sense of hopelessness, disillusionment, and an irreconcilable feeling of impending doom. |
Age | Geography | Religion | Sexual Orientation |
---|---|---|---|
“There is also a generational divide.” (2M21004) | “There are entire districts where people are stupid.” (1M221126) | “She listens to Radio Maryja!” (2M220041) | “An old man shouted at them-LGBT!” (1M181230) |
“With young people, I talk to them, I share my views with them.” (1F550511) | [of a rural village] “There was a Trzaskowski poster. The next morning, it was covered in manure.” |
Endemic, 25+ participants (>50%) | Frustration | |||||
Frequent, 15–30 participants (<50%) | Anger | |||||
Regular, 8–14 participants (<20%) | Misunderstanding | Hatred | ||||
Occasional, 4–7 participants (<10%) | Disgust | |||||
Anecdotal, 0–3 participants | Contempt |
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Neyra, A.-S. “Polish People Are Starting to Hate Polish People”—Uncovering Emergent Patterns of Electoral Hostility in Post-Communist Europe. Societies 2022, 12, 176. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc12060176
Neyra A-S. “Polish People Are Starting to Hate Polish People”—Uncovering Emergent Patterns of Electoral Hostility in Post-Communist Europe. Societies. 2022; 12(6):176. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc12060176
Chicago/Turabian StyleNeyra, Anne-Sophie. 2022. "“Polish People Are Starting to Hate Polish People”—Uncovering Emergent Patterns of Electoral Hostility in Post-Communist Europe" Societies 12, no. 6: 176. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc12060176