Trends in Attitudes of Whites, Blacks, Asians, and Hispanics toward Intermarriage in the Twenty-First Century
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
3. Hypothesis
4. Data and Methods
4.1. Data and Samples
4.2. Dependent Variables
4.3. Independent Variable
4.4. Control Variables
4.5. Methods and Analytical Strategies
5. Results
5.1. Descriptive Analysis
5.2. Trend Analyses
5.3. Generalized Linear Ordinal Logistic Regression Analyses
5.3.1. Changes in Whites’ Support for Intermarriage with Minorities
5.3.2. Changes in Blacks’ Support for Intermarriage
5.3.3. Changes in Asians’ Support for Intermarriage
5.3.4. Changes in Hispanics’ Support for Intermarriage
6. Discussion and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Bogardus, E. A Social Distance Scale. Sociol. Soc. Res. 1933, 3, 265–271. [Google Scholar]
- Gordon, M. Assimilation in American Life; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA, 1964. [Google Scholar]
- Djamba, Y.K.; Kimuna, S.R. Are Americans Really in Favor of Interracial Marriage? A Closer Look at When They Are Asked about Black-White Marriage for Their Relatives. J. Black Stud. 2014, 45, 528–544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Golebiowska, E. The Contours and Etiology of Whites’ Attitudes Toward Black-White Interracial Marriage. J. Black Stud. 2007, 10, 1–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Herman, M.R.; Campbell, M.E. I Wouldn’t, but You Can: Attitudes Toward Interracial Relationships. Soc. Sci. Res. 2012, 41, 343–358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jacobson, C.K.; Johnson, B.R. Interracial Friendship and African American Attitudes about Interracial Marriage. J. Black Stud. 2006, 36, 570–584. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Johnson, B.R.; Jacobson, C.K. Contact in Context: An Examination of Social Settings on Whites’ Attitudes toward Interracial Marriage. Soc. Psychol. Q. 2005, 68, 387–399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Perry, S.L. Religion and Whites’ Attitudes toward Interracial Marriage with African Americans, Asians, and Latinos. J. Sci. Study Relig. 2013, 52, 425–442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wilson, D.; Jacobson, C. White attitudes toward black and white interracial marriage. In American Families: Issues in Race and Ethnicity; Jacobson, C., Ed.; Garland: New York, NY, USA, 1995; pp. 353–367. [Google Scholar]
- Carroll, J. Most Americans Approve of Interracial Marriages: Blacks More Likely Than Whites to Approve of Black-White Unions. Gallup News Services. 2007. Available online: https://news.gallup.com/poll/28417/most-americans-approve-interracial-marriages.aspx (accessed on 6 October 2019).
- Livingston, G.; Brown, A. Intermarriage in the U.S. 50 Years after Loving v. Virginia; Pew Research Center: Washington, DC, USA, 2017; Available online: https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2017/05/18/intermarriage-in-the-u-s-50-years-after-loving-v-virginia/ (accessed on 6 October 2019).
- Passel, J.S.; Wang, W.; Taylor, P. Marrying Out: One-in-Seven New U.S. Marriages Is Interracial or Interethnic; Pew Research Center: Washington, DC, USA, 2010; Available online: https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2010/06/04/marrying-out/ (accessed on 6 October 2019).
- Wang, W. The Rise of Intermarriage: Rates, Characteristics Vary by Race and Gender. In Social and Demographic Trends; Pew Research Center: Washington, DC, USA, 2012; Available online: http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2012/02/16/chapter-4-public-attitudes-on-intermarriage/ (accessed on 5 October 2019).
- Spickard, P. Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity in Twentieth Century America; University of Wisconsin Press: Madison, WI, USA, 1989. [Google Scholar]
- Yang, P.Q.; Bohm-Jordan, M. Patterns of Interracial and Interethnic Marriages among Foreign-Born Asians in the United States. Societies 2018, 8, 87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Schuman, H.; Steeh, C.; Bobo, L.; Krysan, M. Racial Attitudes in America: Trends and Interpretations; Revised edition; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1997. [Google Scholar]
- Jones, J.M. Record-High 86% Approve of Black-White Marriages: Ninety-Six Percent of Blacks, 84% of Whites Approve. Gallup News Services. 2011. Available online: https://news.gallup.com/poll/149390/record-high-approve-black-white-marriages.aspx (accessed on 6 October 2019).
- Yancey, G.; Lewis, R. Interracial Families: Current Concepts and Controversies; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Batson, C.D.; Qian, Z.; Lichter, D.T. Interracial and Intraracial Patterns of Mate Selection Among America’s Diverse Black Populations. J. Marriage Fam. 2006, 68, 658–672. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Qian, Z. Breaking the Racial Barriers: Variations in Interracial Marriage between 1980 and 1990. Demography 1997, 34, 478–500. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Qian, Z.; Lichter, D.T. Social Boundaries and Marital Assimilation: Interpreting Trends in Racial and Ethnic Intermarriage. Am. Sociol. Rev. 2007, 72, 68–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rosenfeld, M.J. A Critique of Exchange Theory in Mate Selection. Am. J. Sociol. 2005, 110, 1284–1325. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Qian, Z.; Cobas, J.A. Latinos’ Mate Selection: Variations by National Origin, Race, and Nativity. Soc. Sci. Res. 2004, 33, 225–247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Allport, G. The Nature of Prejudice; Addison-Wesley: Reading, MA, USA, 1954. [Google Scholar]
- Lichterman, P.; Carter, P.; Lamont, M. Race-Bridging for Chris? Conservative christians and black-white relations in community life. In Evangelicals and Democracy in America; Brint, S., Schroedel, J., Eds.; Russell Sage: New York, NY, USA, 2009; Volume 1, pp. 187–220. [Google Scholar]
- Yancey, G. An Examination of the Effects of Residential and Church Integration on Racial Attitudes of Whites. Sociol. Perspect. 1999, 42, 279–304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, P.Q. Asian Immigration to the United States; Polity: Cambridge, UK, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Smith, T.; Davern, M.; Freese, J.; Hout, M. General Social Surveys, 1972–2018; NORC: Chicago, IL, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- U.S. Census Bureau. Interracially Married Couples by Race and Hispanic Origin of Spouses. Available online: https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/2011/compendia/statab/131ed/tables/12s0060.xls (accessed on 4 March 2021).
Variable | Intermarriage with Whites | Intermarriage with Blacks | Intermarriage with Asians | Intermarriage with Hispanics | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | |
Whites’ support for intermarriage | - | - | 3.050 | 1.134 | 3.260 | 1.004 | 3.279 | 1.022 |
Blacks’ support for intermarriage | 3.742 | 1.061 | - | - | 3.667 | 1.061 | 3.694 | 1.050 |
Asians’ support for intermarriage | 3.484 | 0.929 | 3.121 | 1.006 | - | - | 3.306 | 0.944 |
Hispanics’ support for intermarriage | 3.683 | 0.932 | 3.437 | 1.053 | 3.550 | 0.947 | - | - |
Predictor | Intermarriage with Blacks | Intermarriage with Asians | Intermarriage with Hispanics | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | |
Threshold 1 | 0.206 *** | 0.140 *** | 0.065 *** | 0.074 *** | 0.067 *** | 0.067 *** |
Threshold 2 | 0.500 *** | 0.381 *** | 0.211 *** | 0.261 *** | 0.213 *** | 0.232 *** |
Threshold 3 | 4.420 *** | 4.059 *** | 2.788 *** | 3.764 *** | 2.638 *** | 3.110 *** |
Threshold 4 | 9.902 *** | 9.328 *** | 6.667 *** | 9.094 *** | 6.103 *** | 7.296 *** |
Year(Ref.=2000) | ||||||
2002 | 1.231 * | 1.217 * | ||||
2004 | 1.225 * | 1.218 * | 0.937 | 0.952 | 0.953 | 0.963 |
2006 | 1.248 ** | 1.278 *** | 0.935 | 0.979 | 0.896 | 0.948 |
2008 | 1.429 *** | 1.524 *** | 1.021 | 1.081 | 1.068 | 1.114 |
2010 | 1.812 *** | 1.933 *** | 1.201 * | 1.278 ** | 1.202 * | 1.282 ** |
2012 | 1.611 *** | 1.567 *** | 1.153 | 1.171 | 1.157 | 1.129 |
2014 | 2.114 *** | 2.241 *** | 1.425 *** | 1.468 *** | 1.485 *** | 1.540 *** |
2016 | 2.146 *** | 2.247 *** | 1.545 *** | 1.608 *** | 1.538 *** | 1.620 *** |
2018 | 2.531 *** | 2.830 *** | 1.617 *** | 1.739 *** | 1.519 *** | 1.642 *** |
Age | 0.975 *** | 0.988 *** | 0.989 *** | |||
Female | 1.450 *** | 1.388 *** | 1.363 *** | |||
Currently married | 1.003 | 0.966 | 0.948 | |||
Region(Ref.=South) | ||||||
Northeast | 1.532 *** | 1.241 *** | 1.220 ** | |||
Midwest | 1.499 *** | 1.268 *** | 1.241 *** | |||
West | 2.030 *** | 1.502 *** | 1.635 *** | |||
Years of schooling | 1.070 *** | 1.056 *** | 1.044 *** | |||
Christian | 0.969 | 0.944 | 1.020 | |||
Republican | 0.850 *** | 0.941 | 0.903 * | |||
Conservatism | 0.899 *** | 0.952 ** | 0.937 *** | |||
Likelihood ratio | ||||||
χ2 | 289 *** | 1461 *** | 105 *** | 452 *** | 105 *** | 450 *** |
df | 8 | 19 | 8 | 18 | 8 | 18 |
N | 10,963 | 10,963 | 9340 | 9340 | 9352 | 8971 |
Predictor | Intermarriage with Asians | Intermarriage with Hispanics | Intermarriage with Whites | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | |
Threshold 1 | 0.061 *** | 0.063 *** | 0.053 *** | 0.056 *** | 0.038 *** | 0.024 *** |
Threshold 2 | 0.170 *** | 0.181 *** | 0.118 *** | 0.131 *** | 0.110 *** | 0.069 *** |
Threshold 3 | 1.927 *** | 2.123 * | 1.492 ** | 1.675 | 1.259 | 0.835 |
Threshold 4 | 4.257 *** | 4.792 *** | 3.406 *** | 3.925 *** | 2.671 *** | 1.837 |
Year(Ref.=2000) | ||||||
2002 | 1.732 ** | 1.630 * | ||||
2004 | 1.315 | 1.249 | 1.036 | 1.002 | 0.710 | 0.570 * |
2006 | 1.825 ** | 1.746 ** | 1.565 * | 1.524 * | 1.530 * | 1.395 |
2008 | 1.890 ** | 1.810 ** | 1.420 | 1.394 | 1.419 | 1.298 |
2010 | 2.478 *** | 2.333 *** | 1.799 ** | 1.703 ** | 1.391 | 1.268 |
2012 | 1.848 ** | 1.832 ** | 1.578 * | 1.589 * | 1.566 * | 1.536 * |
2014 | 1.949 *** | 2.006 *** | 1.729 ** | 1.830 ** | 1.443 * | 1.406 |
2016 | 1.566 * | 1.493 * | 1.322 | 1.289 | 1.134 | 1.052 |
2018 | 2.113 *** | 2.327 *** | 1.674 ** | 1.883 ** | 1.327 | 1.439 |
Age | 0.989 ** | 0.989 ** | 0.991 ** | |||
Female | 1.123 | 1.010 | 1.291 ** | |||
Currently married | 1.039 | 0.980 | 1.068 | |||
Region(Ref.=South) | ||||||
Northeast | 0.771 | 0.926 | 0.770 * | |||
Midwest | 1.283 | 1.262 | 1.432 ** | |||
West | 1.003 | 1.198 | 0.896 | |||
Years of schooling | 1.013 | 1.001 | 0.970 | |||
Christian | 1.306 * | 1.573 *** | 1.505 ** | |||
Republican | 0.995 | 0.936 | 1.514 | |||
Conservatism | 1.032 | 1.049 | 0.981 | |||
Likelihood ratio | ||||||
χ2 | 30 *** | 51 *** | 18 *** | 42 *** | 23 ** | 71 *** |
df | 8 | 18 | 8 | 18 | 9 | 19 |
N | 1593 | 1494 | 1595 | 1494 | 1773 | 1647 |
Predictor | Intermarriage with Blacks | Intermarriage with Hispanics | Intermarriage with Whites | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | |
Threshold 1 | 0.054 *** | 0.008 *** | 0.029 *** | 0.007 *** | 0.014 *** | 0.003 *** |
Threshold 2 | 0.163 *** | 0.029 *** | 0.075 *** | 0.018 *** | 0.037 *** | 0.008 *** |
Threshold 3 | 1.972 * | 0.460 | 1.277 | 0.402 | 0.788 | 0.208 * |
Threshold 4 | 5.777 *** | 1.378 | 4.13 1 *** | 1.403 | 2.446 ** | 0.672 |
Year(Ref.=2000) | ||||||
2002 | 0.611 | 1.067 | 0.775 | 0.703 | ||
2004 | 0.282 * | 0.271 * | 0.530 | 0.608 | 0.545 | 0.589 |
2006 | 0.604 | 0.737 | 0.471 * | 0.686 | 0.462 * | 0.442 |
2008 | 0.750 | 0.983 | 0.457 | 0.575 | 0.543 | 0.740 |
2010 | 0.425 | 0.508 | 0.424 * | 0.520 | 0.377 * | 0.426 |
2012 | 0.697 | 0.816 | 0.491 | 0.602 | 0.320 ** | 0.257 ** |
2014 | 1.093 | 1.901 | 0.932 | 1.664 | 0.640 | 0.918 |
2016 | 0.928 | 1.270 | 0.909 | 1.203 | 0.810 | 0.971 |
2018 | 1.163 | 1.478 | 0.871 | 0.980 | 0.392 | 0.346 |
Age | 0.980 ** | 0.991 | 0.993 | |||
Female | 0.962 | 1.078 | 0.894 | |||
Currently married | 0.727 | 0.608 * | 0.759 | |||
Region(Ref.=South) | ||||||
Northeast | 1.525 | 1.357 | 0.758 | |||
Midwest | 0.784 | 0.467 * | 0.313 ** | |||
West | 1.786 * | 1.447 | 0.971 | |||
Years of schooling | 0.934 * | 0.934 | 0.954 | |||
Christian | 1.571 * | 1.649 * | 1.653 * | |||
Republican | 1.580 | 1.151 | 1.526 | |||
Conservatism | 0.925 | 0.960 | 0.916 | |||
Likelihood ratio | ||||||
χ2 | 21 * | 70 *** | 14 | 53 *** | 16 | 55 *** |
df | 9 | 19 | 8 | 18 | 9 | 19 |
N | 479 | 448 | 454 | 428 | 482 | 451 |
Predictor | Intermarriage with Blacks | Intermarriage with Asians | Intermarriage with Whites | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | |
Threshold 1 | 0.099 *** | 0.099 *** | 0.027 *** | 0.030 *** | 0.006 *** | 0.014 *** |
Threshold 2 | 0.173 *** | 0.177 ** | 0.072 *** | 0.090 *** | 0.014 *** | 0.033 *** |
Threshold 3 | 2.426 * | 2.576 | 1.654 | 2.087 | 0.555 * | 1.299 |
Threshold 4 | 5.364 *** | 6.005 ** | 3.733 ** | 4.959 * | 1.252 | 2.981 |
Year (Ref.=2000) | ||||||
2002 | 1.391 | 1.165 | 0.715 | 0.696 | ||
2004 | 1.009 | 0.824 | 0.685 | 0.548 | 0.226 ** | 0.189 ** |
2006 | 0.948 | 0.710 | 0.776 | 0.634 | 0.283 *** | 0.241 *** |
2008 | 2.107 | 1.846 | 1.382 | 1.196 | 0.647 | 0.642 |
2010 | 1.567 | 1.197 | 1.172 | 0.922 | 0.526 | 0.440 * |
2012 | 2.102 | 2.006 | 1.298 | 1.061 | 0.550 | 0.453 * |
2014 | 1.448 | 1.235 | 1.054 | 0.872 | 0.382 ** | 0.329 ** |
2016 | 1.622 | 1.495 | 1.244 | 1.137 | 0.559 | 0.543 |
2018 | 2.012 | 1.840 | 1.594 | 1.429 | 0.522 | 0.486 |
Age | 0.990 | 0.996 | 0.998 | |||
Female | 1.271 | 0.957 | 1.100 | |||
Currently married | 0.968 | 0.962 | 1.244 | |||
Region (Ref.=South) | ||||||
Northeast | 1.594 | 1.513 | 1.265 | |||
Midwest | 0.633 | 0.681 | 0.706 | |||
West | 1.108 | 1.098 | 0.887 | |||
Years of schooling | 1.039 | 1.030 | 1.061 * | |||
Christian | 1.235 | 0.989 | 1.154 | |||
Republican | 0.574 | 1.075 | 0.737 | |||
Conservatism | 0.955 | 1.043 | 1.041 | |||
Likelihood ratio | ||||||
χ2 | 15 | 37 ** | 10 | 18 | 22 ** | 26 |
df | 9 | 19 | 8 | 18 | 9 | 19 |
N | 612 | 566 | 588 | 545 | 614 | 567 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Yang, P.Q.; Prost, J. Trends in Attitudes of Whites, Blacks, Asians, and Hispanics toward Intermarriage in the Twenty-First Century. Societies 2021, 11, 21. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc11010021
Yang PQ, Prost J. Trends in Attitudes of Whites, Blacks, Asians, and Hispanics toward Intermarriage in the Twenty-First Century. Societies. 2021; 11(1):21. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc11010021
Chicago/Turabian StyleYang, Philip Q., and Jonbita Prost. 2021. "Trends in Attitudes of Whites, Blacks, Asians, and Hispanics toward Intermarriage in the Twenty-First Century" Societies 11, no. 1: 21. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc11010021