Effects of Foraging and Provisioning Behavior on Offspring Development in the Ground Nesting Carpenter Bee Xylocopa (Proxylocopa) mongolicus (Hymenoptera, Apidae, Xylocopini)
by
Xuan Liu
1,†, 
Chunling He
1,*,†,
Dongshuo Yang
2,
Le Yang
1,
Jiabao Wei
1,
Qianlei Dai
1,
Jia Wan
1,
Jialin Li
1,
Yaheng Ma
1 and
Kaiyue Zhang
1 1
College of Horticulture and Plant Protection, Henan University of Science & Technology, Luoyang 471000, China
2
College of Life Sciences, Luoyang Normal University, Luoyang 471934, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Insects 2026, 17(4), 388; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17040388
Submission received: 22 February 2026
/
Revised: 25 March 2026
/
Accepted: 31 March 2026
/
Published: 2 April 2026
(This article belongs to the Section Social Insects and Apiculture)
Simple Summary
Xylocopa mongolicus is an important pollinator in desert ecosystems. It employs a composite strategy of generalist foraging with narrow brood-provisioning specialization to adapt to desert environments. The species visits flowering plants from 10 families and 17 species, yet the pollen in its bee bread is highly concentrated in Ammopiptanthus mongolicus and Oxytropis bicolor (together accounting for >92%). Foraging duration is significantly regulated by temperature and humidity and varies markedly between years with contrasting precipitation. In 2025, which experienced more abundant spring rainfall, the bee bread was lighter in weight but higher in protein content, and offspring body size was significantly larger than that in 2024. These findings indicate that the reproductive success of this species is closely linked to the nutritional supply of key plants and precipitation patterns, offering important insights into the adaptation mechanisms of desert pollinators to climatic fluctuations.
Abstract
Understanding how pollinators adjust their behavior to maximize reproductive success in resource-limited desert ecosystems is a fundamental ecological question. In this study, we investigated X. mongolicus using a combination of field behavioral observations, pollen identification, nutritional analysis, and morphometric measurements to systematically examine interannual variations in its flower visitation spectrum, foraging behavior, bee bread composition, and offspring body size. Our findings reveal a striking contrast: although this species exhibits polyphagy in flower visitation, it shows dietary specialization in larval nutrition—over 92% of the pollen in its bee bread originates from just two leguminous species, A. mongolicus and O. bicolor. Foraging duration increased with rising temperature and humidity, and bees adapted to strong winds by flying close to the ground. Compared with 2024, the bee bread in 2025 had lower fresh weight but higher crude protein content, and offspring body size was larger—likely due to more abundant spring rainfall in 2025, which improved the flowering performance of A. mongolicus. Collectively, these results indicate that this bee species copes with resource uncertainty in desert habitats through flexible foraging range and highly specialized food storage, with its reproductive success closely tied to the nutritional supply of key plants and precipitation patterns. This study highlights the role of precipitation timing in shaping the nutritional foundation of plant–pollinator interactions, providing a scientific basis for the conservation and management of desert pollinators.
