Predictive and Diagnostic Biomarkers of Anastomotic Leakage: A Precision Medicine Approach for Colorectal Cancer Patients
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Colorectal Cancer Staging and Treatment
3. Anastomotic Leaks
4. Intestinal Healing
- ➢
- Stage 1. Haemostasis. Occurring immediately after intestinal injury, this stage involves platelet and coagulation cascade activation.
- ➢
- Stage 2. Inflammation. Occurring within 10 days after intestinal injury, this stage involves surgical site recruitment of lymphocytes, neutrophils and macrophages.
- ➢
- Stage 3. Proliferation. Occurring from 5 to 21 days after intestinal injury, this stage involves intestinal re-epithelisation through fibroblast recruitment and endothelial cell proliferation.
- ➢
- Stage 4. Remodelling. The final stage of intestinal healing occurs from 21 days after intestinal injury and continues for up to 1 year. Here, collagen deposition and tissue remodelling can restore intestinal integrity.
5. Anastomotic Leak Pathophysiology and Risk Factors
5.1. Patient-Related Factors
5.2. Surgery-Related Factors
6. Diagnosis
7. Precision Medicine, Prognostic, Predictive and Pharmacodynamic Biomarkers
- Diagnostic. Identifies the presence of disease;
- Predictive. Indicates the likely benefit of a specific treatment;
- Prognostic. Indicates patient outcome, irrespective of treatment;
- Pharmacodynamic. Allows monitoring treatment effectiveness.
8. Intra-Operative Techniques
9. Post-Operative Techniques
10. Biomarkers of Ischaemia
10.1. Lactate/Pyruvate Ratio
10.2. pH
10.3. Tissue Oxygenation
11. Biomarkers of Inflammation
11.1. C-Reactive Protein, Albumin and Procalcitonin
11.2. Cytokines, Tumour Necrosis Factor-α and Growth Factors
11.3. Leukocytes, Neutrophils and Intestinal Damage Markers
11.4. Macrophage Biomarkers
11.5. Hyponatraemia
12. Biomarkers of Tissue Repair
13. The Intestinal Microbiome and Bacterial Contamination
Bacterial Load
14. Limitations of Biomarkers of Anastomotic Leakage and Future Perspectives
15. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Bray, F.; Ferlay, J.; Soerjomataram, I.; Siegel, R.L.; Torre, L.A.; Jemal, A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J. Clin. 2018, 68, 394–424. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cancer Research UK. Cancer Statistics for the UK. Available online: www.cancerresearchuk.org (accessed on 12 March 2021).
- Peel, A.L.; Taylor, E.W. Proposed definitions for the audit of postoperative infection: A discussion paper. Surgical Infection Study Group. Ann. R. Coll. Surg. Engl. 1991, 73, 385–388. [Google Scholar]
- Bruce, J.; Krukowski, Z.H.; Al-Khairy, G.; Russell, E.M.; Park, K.G.M. Systematic review of the definition and measurement of anastomotic leak after gastrointestinal surgery. BJS 2002, 88, 1157–1168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rahbari, N.N.; Weitz, J.; Hohenberger, W.; Heald, R.J.; Moran, B.; Ulrich, A.; Holm, T.; Wong, W.D.; Tiret, E.; Moriya, Y.; et al. Definition and grading of anastomotic leakage following anterior resection of the rectum: A proposal by the International Study Group of Rectal Cancer. Surgery 2010, 147, 339–351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kulu, Y.; Ulrich, A.; Bruckner, T.; Contin, P.; Welsch, T.; Rahbari, N.N.; Büchler, M.W.; Weitz, J. Validation of the International Study Group of Rectal Cancer definition and severity grading of anastomotic leakage. Surgery 2013, 153, 753–761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hyman, N.; Manchester, T.L.; Osler, T.; Burns, B.; Cataldo, P.A. Anastomotic Leaks after Intestinal Anastomosis: It’s Later than You Think. Ann. Surg. 2007, 245, 254–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boccola, M.A.; Buettner, P.G.; Rozen, W.M.; Siu, S.K.; Stevenson, A.R.L.; Stitz, R.; Ho, Y.-H. Risk Factors and Outcomes for Anastomotic Leakage in Colorectal Surgery: A Single-Institution Analysis of 1576 Patients. World J. Surg. 2011, 35, 186–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kingham, T.P.; Pachter, H.L. Colonic Anastomotic Leak: Risk Factors, Diagnosis, and Treatment. J. Am. Coll. Surg. 2009, 208, 269–278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hallböök, O.; Sjödahl, R. Anastomotic leakage and functional outcome after anterior resection of the rectum. BJS 1996, 83, 60–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kube, R.; Mroczkowski, P.; Granowski, D.; Benedix, F.; Sahm, M.; Schmidt, U.; Gastinger, I.; Lippert, H. Anastomotic leakage after colon cancer surgery: A predictor of significant morbidity and hospital mortality, and diminished tumour-free survival. Eur. J. Surg. Oncol. 2010, 36, 120–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Marra, F.; Steffen, T.; Kalak, N.; Warschkow, R.; Tarantino, I.; Lange, J.; Zünd, M. Anastomotic leakage as a risk factor for the long-term outcome after curative resection of colon cancer. Eur. J. Surg. Oncol. 2009, 35, 1060–1064. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dulk, M.D.; Noter, S.; Hendriks, E.; Brouwers, M.; van der Vlies, C.; Oostenbroek, R.; Menon, A.; Steup, W.; van de Velde, C. Improved diagnosis and treatment of anastomotic leakage after colorectal surgery. Eur. J. Surg. Oncol. 2009, 35, 420–426. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bell, S.W.; Walker, K.G.; Rickard, M.J.F.X.; Sinclair, G.; Dent, O.F.; Chapuis, P.H.; Bokey, E.L. Anastomotic leakage after curative anterior resection results in a higher prevalence of local recurrence. BJS 2003, 90, 1261–1266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Petersen, S.; Freitag, M.; Hellmich, G.; Ludwig, K. Anastomotic leakage: Impact on local recurrence and survival in surgery of colorectal cancer. Int. J. Colorectal Dis. 1998, 13, 160–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Branagan, G.; Finnis, D. Prognosis after Anastomotic Leakage in Colorectal Surgery. Dis. Colon Rectum 2005, 48, 1021–1026. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, S.; Liu, J.; Wang, S.; Zhao, H.; Ge, S.; Wang, W. Adverse Effects of Anastomotic Leakage on Local Recurrence and Survival After Curative Anterior Resection for Rectal Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. World J. Surg. 2016, 41, 277–284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ramphal, W.; Boeding, J.R.; Gobardhan, P.D.; Rutten, H.J.; de Winter, L.J.B.; Crolla, R.M.; Schreinemakers, J.M. Oncologic outcome and recurrence rate following anastomotic leakage after curative resection for colorectal cancer. Surg. Oncol. 2018, 27, 730–736. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Umpleby, H.C.; Fermor, B.; Symes, M.O.; Williamson, R.C.N. Viability of exfoliated colorectal carcinoma cells. BJS 2005, 71, 659–663. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Symes, M.O.; Fermor, B.; Umpleby, H.C.; Tribe, C.R.; Williamson, R.C. Cells exfoliated from colorectal cancers can proliferate in immune deprived mice. Br. J. Cancer 1984, 50, 423–425. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Fermor, B.; Umpleby, H.C.; Lever, J.V.; Symes, M.O.; Williamson, R.C.N. Proliferative and Metastatic Potential of Exfoliated Colorectal Cancer Cells. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1986, 76, 347–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gertsch, P.; Baer, H.U.; Kraft, R.; Maddern, G.J.; Altermatt, H.J. Malignant cells are collected on circular staplers. Dis. Colon Rectum 1992, 35, 238–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tol, P.M.V.D.; Van Rossen, E.E.M.; Van Eijck, C.H.J.; Bonthuis, F.; Marquet, R.L.; Jeekel, H. Reduction of Peritoneal Trauma By Using Nonsurgical Gauze Leads to Less Implantation Metastasis of Spilled Tumor Cells. Ann. Surg. 1998, 227, 242–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Skipper, D.; Cooper, A.J.; Marston, J.E.; Taylor, I. Exfoliated cells and in vitro growth in colorectal cancer. BJS 1987, 74, 1049–1052. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baskaranathan, S.; Philips, J.; McCredden, P.; Solomon, M. Free Colorectal Cancer Cells on the Peritoneal Surface: Correlation with Pathologic Variables and Survival. Dis. Colon Rectum 2004, 47, 2076–2079. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Aggarwal, B.B.; Vijayalekshmi, R.V.; Sung, B. Targeting Inflammatory Pathways for Prevention and Therapy of Cancer: Short-Term Friend, Long-Term Foe. Clin. Cancer Res. 2009, 15, 425–430. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wu, Y.; Zhou, B.P. Inflammation: A driving force speeds cancer metastasis. Cell Cycle 2009, 8, 3267–3273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mantovani, A.; Allavena, P.; Sica, A.; Balkwill, F. Cancer-related inflammation. Nature 2008, 454, 436–444. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Karin, M. Nuclear factor-κB in cancer development and progression. Nature 2006, 441, 431–436. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Coussens, L.M.; Werb, Z. Inflammation and cancer. Nature 2002, 420, 860–867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McMillan, D.C.; Canna, K.; McArdle, C.S. Systemic inflammatory response predicts survival following curative resection of colorectal cancer. BJS 2003, 90, 215–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Canna, K.; McMillan, D.C.; McKee, R.F.; McNicol, A.-M.; Horgan, P.G.; McArdle, C.S. Evaluation of a cumulative prognostic score based on the systemic inflammatory response in patients undergoing potentially curative surgery for colorectal cancer. Br. J. Cancer 2004, 90, 1707–1709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bohle, B.; Pera, M.; Pascual, M.; Alonso, S.; Mayol, X.; Salvado, M.; Schmidt, J.; Grande, L. Postoperative intra-abdominal infection increases angiogenesis and tumor recurrence after surgical excision of colon cancer in mice. Surgery 2010, 147, 120–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lindgren, R.; Hallböök, O.; Rutegård, J.; Sjödahl, R.; Matthiessen, P. What Is the Risk for a Permanent Stoma After Low Anterior Resection of the Rectum for Cancer? A Six-Year Follow-Up of a Multicenter Trial. Dis. Colon Rectum 2011, 54, 41–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Choi, H.-K.; Law, W.-L.; Ho, J.W.C. Leakage after Resection and Intraperitoneal Anastomosis for Colorectal Malignancy: Analysis of Risk Factors. Dis. Colon Rectum 2006, 49, 1719–1725. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- La Regina, D.; Di Giuseppe, M.; Lucchelli, M.; Saporito, A.; Boni, L.; Efthymiou, C.; Cafarotti, S.; Marengo, M.; Mongelli, F. Financial Impact of Anastomotic Leakage in Colorectal Surgery. J. Gastrointest. Surg. 2018, 23, 580–586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brisinda, G.; Vanella, S.; Cadeddu, F.; Civello, I.M.; Brandara, F.; Nigro, C.; Mazzeo, P.; Marniga, G.; Maria, G. End-to-end versus end-to-side stapled anastomoses after anterior resection for rectal cancer. J. Surg. Oncol. 2009, 99, 75–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Koperna, T. Cost-effectiveness of defunctioning stomas in low anterior resections for rectal cancer: A call for benchmarking. Arch. Surg. 2003, 138, 1334–1338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ashraf, S.; Burns, E.; Jani, A.; Altman, S.; Young, J.; Cunningham, C.; Faiz, O.; Mortensen, N. The economic impact of anastomotic leakage after anterior resections in English NHS hospitals: Are we adequately remunerating them? Colorectal Dis. 2013, 15, e190–e198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nesbakken, A.; Nygaard, K.; Lunde, O.C. Outcome and late functional results after anastomotic leakage following mesorectal excision for rectal cancer. BJS 2002, 88, 400–404. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hammond, J.; Lim, S.; Wan, Y.; Gao, X.; Patkar, A. The Burden of Gastrointestinal Anastomotic Leaks: An Evaluation of Clinical and Economic Outcomes. J. Gastrointest. Surg. 2014, 18, 1176–1185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Murrell, Z.A.; Stamos, M.J. Reoperation for Anastomotic Failure. Clin. Colon Rectal Surg. 2006, 19, 213–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Macarthur, D.C.; Nixon, S.J.; Aitken, R.J. Avoidable deaths still occur after large bowel surgery. BJS 2003, 85, 80–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Alves, A.; Panis, Y.; Pocard, M.; Regimbeau, J.-M.; Valleur, P. Management of anastomotic leakage after nondiverted large bowel resection. J. Am. Coll. Surg. 1999, 189, 554–559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alves, Y.P.A.; Panis, Y.; Trancart, D.; Regimbeau, J.-M.; Pocard, M.; Valleur, P. Factors Associated with Clinically Significant Anastomotic Leakage after Large Bowel Resection: Multivariate Analysis of 707 Patients. World J. Surg. 2002, 26, 499–502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dellinger, R.P.; The Surviving Sepsis Campaign Guidelines Committee including The Pediatric Subgroup; Levy, M.M.; Rhodes, A.; Annane, D.; Gerlach, H.; Opal, S.M.; Sevransky, J.E.; Sprung, C.L.; Douglas, I.S.; et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International Guidelines for Management of Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock, 2012. Intensive Care Med. 2013, 39, 165–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lundy, J.B. A Primer on Wound Healing in Colorectal Surgery in the Age of Bioprosthetic Materials. Clin. Colon Rectal Surg. 2014, 27, 125–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Thompson, S.K.; Chang, E.Y.; Jobe, B.A. Clinical review: Healing in gastrointestinal anastomoses, Part I. Microsurgery 2006, 26, 131–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Enestvedt, C.K.; Thompson, S.K.; Chang, E.Y.; Jobe, B.A. Clinical review: Healing in gastrointestinal anastomoses, Part II. Microsurgery 2006, 26, 137–143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Trencheva, K.; Morrissey, K.P.; Wells, M.; Mancuso, C.A.; Lee, S.W.; Sonoda, T.; Michelassi, F.; Charlson, M.E.; Milsom, J.W. Identifying important predictors for anastomotic leak after colon and rectal resection: Prospective study on 616 patients. Ann. Surg. 2013, 257, 108–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Park, J.S.; Choi, G.-S.; Kim, S.H.; Kim, H.R.; Kim, N.K.; Lee, K.Y.; Kang, S.B.; Kim, J.Y.; Lee, K.Y.; Kim, B.C. Multicenter analysis of risk factors for anastomotic leakage after laparoscopic rectal cancer excision: The Korean laparoscopic colorectal surgery study group. Ann. Surg. 2013, 257, 665–671. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jung, S.H.; Yu, C.S.; Choi, P.W.; Kim, D.D.; Park, I.J.; Kim, H.C.; Kim, J.C. Risk Factors and Oncologic Impact of Anastomotic Leakage after Rectal Cancer Surgery. Dis. Colon Rectum 2008, 51, 902–908. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Law, W.-L.; Chu, K.-W.; Ho, J.W.; Chan, C.-W. Risk factors for anastomotic leakage after low anterior resection with total mesorectal excision. Am. J. Surg. 2000, 179, 92–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ba, Z.F.; Yokoyama, Y.; Toth, B.; Rue, L.W.; Bland, K.I.; Chaudry, I.H. Gender differences in small intestinal endothelial function: Inhibitory role of androgens. Am. J. Physiol. Liver Physiol. 2004, 286, G452–G457. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Bakker, I.S.; Grossmann, I.; Henneman, D.; Havenga, K.; Wiggers, T. Risk factors for anastomotic leakage and leak-related mortality after colonic cancer surgery in a nationwide audit. BJS 2014, 101, 424–432. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Buchs, N.C.; Gervaz, P.; Secic, M.; Bucher, P.; Mugnier-Konrad, B.; Morel, P. Incidence, consequences, and risk factors for anastomotic dehiscence after colorectal surgery: A prospective monocentric study. Int. J. Colorectal Dis. 2008, 23, 265–270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kwag, S.-J.; Kim, J.-G.; Kang, W.-K.; Lee, J.-K.; Oh, S.-T. The nutritional risk is a independent factor for postoperative morbidity in surgery for colorectal cancer. Ann. Surg. Treat. Res. 2014, 86, 206–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Veyrie, N.; Ata, T.; Muscari, F.; Couchard, A.-C.; Msika, S.; Hay, J.-M.; Fingerhut, A.; Dziri, C. Anastomotic Leakage after Elective Right Versus Left Colectomy for Cancer: Prevalence and Independent Risk Factors. J. Am. Coll. Surg. 2007, 205, 785–793. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kang, C.Y.; Halabi, W.J.; Chaudhry, O.O.; Nguyen, V.; Pigazzi, A.; Carmichael, J.; Mills, S.; Stamos, M.J. Risk Factors for Anastomotic Leakage After Anterior Resection for Rectal Cancer. JAMA Surg. 2013, 148, 65–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hennessey, D.B.; Burke, J.P.; Ni-Dhonochu, T.; Shields, C.; Winter, D.C.; Mealy, K. Preoperative hypoalbuminemia is an independent risk factor for the development of surgical site infection following gastrointestinal surgery: A multi-institutional study. Ann. Surg. 2010, 252, 325–329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hayden, D.M.; Pinzon, M.C.M.; Francescatti, A.B.; Saclarides, T.J. Patient factors may predict anastomotic complications after rectal cancer surgery: Anastomotic complications in rectal cancer. Ann. Med. Surg. 2015, 4, 11–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tibbs, M.K. Wound healing following radiation therapy: A review. Radiother. Oncol. 1997, 42, 99–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hu, M.-H.; Huang, R.-K.; Zhao, R.-S.; Yang, K.-L.; Wang, H. Does neoadjuvant therapy increase the incidence of anastomotic leakage after anterior resection for mid and low rectal cancer? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Colorectal Dis. 2017, 19, 16–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pommergaard, H.-C.; Gessler, B.; Burcharth, J.; Angenete, E.; Haglind, E.; Rosenberg, J. Preoperative risk factors for anastomotic leakage after resection for colorectal cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Colorectal Dis. 2014, 16, 662–671. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sciuto, A.; Merola, G.; De Palma, G.D.; Sodo, M.; Pirozzi, F.; Bracale, U.M. Predictive factors for anastomotic leakage after laparoscopic colorectal surgery. World J. Gastroenterol. 2018, 24, 2247–2260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Volk, A.; Kersting, S.; Held, H.C.; Saeger, H.D. Risk factors for morbidity and mortality after single-layer continuous suture for ileocolonic anastomosis. Int. J. Colorectal Dis. 2010, 26, 321–327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ziegler, M.A.; Catto, J.A.; Riggs, T.W.; Gates, E.R.; Grodsky, M.B.; Wasvary, H.J. Risk factors for anastomotic leak and mortality in diabetic patients undergoing colectomy: Analysis from a statewide surgical quality collaborative. Arch. Surg. 2012, 147, 600–605. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Richards, C.H.; Campbell, V.; Ho, C.; Hayes, J.; Elliott, T.; Thompson-Fawcett, M. Smoking is a major risk factor for anastomotic leak in patients undergoing low anterior resection. Colorectal Dis. 2011, 14, 628–633. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Biondo, S.; Parés, D.; Kreisler, E.; Ragué, J.M.; Fraccalvieri, D.; Ruiz, A.G.; Jaurrieta, E. Anastomotic Dehiscence After Resection and Primary Anastomosis in Left-Sided Colonic Emergencies. Dis. Colon Rectum 2005, 48, 2272–2280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sørensen, L.T.; Jørgensen, T.; Kirkeby, L.T.; Skovdal, J.; Vennits, B.; Wille-Jørgensen, P. Smoking and alcohol abuse are major risk factors for anastomotic leakage in colorectal surgery. BJS 2002, 86, 927–931. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gershuni, V.M.; Friedman, E.S. The Microbiome-Host Interaction as a Potential Driver of Anastomotic Leak. Curr. Gastroenterol. Rep. 2019, 21, 4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schardey, H.M.; Kamps, T.; Rau, H.G.; Gatermann, S.; Baretton, G.; Schildberg, F.W. Bacteria: A major pathogenic factor for anastomotic insufficiency. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1994, 38, 2564–2567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Schardey, H.M.; Joosten, U.; Finke, U.; Staubach, K.H.; Schauer, R.; Heiss, A.; Kooistra, A.; Rau, H.G.; Nibler, R.; Lüdeling, S.; et al. The Prevention of Anastomotic Leakage after Total Gastrectomy with Local Decontamination. A prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter trial. Ann. Surg. 1997, 225, 172–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shogan, B.D.; Carlisle, E.M.; Alverdy, J.C.; Umanskiy, K. Do We Really Know Why Colorectal Anastomoses Leak? J. Gastrointest. Surg. 2013, 17, 1698–1707. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shogan, B.D.; Belogortseva, N.; Luong, P.M.; Zaborin, A.; Lax, S.; Bethel, C.; Ward, M.; Muldoon, J.P.; Singer, M.; An, G. Collagen degradation and MMP9 activation by Enterococcus faecalis contribute to intestinal anastomotic leak. Sci. Transl. Med. 2015, 7, 286ra68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Øines, M.N.; Krarup, P.-M.; Jorgensen, L.N.; Ågren, M.S. Pharmacological interventions for improved colonic anastomotic healing: A meta-analysis. World J. Gastroenterol. 2014, 20, 12637–12648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Damen, N.; Spilsbury, K.; Levitt, M.; Makin, G.; Salama, P.; Tan, P.; Penter, C.; Platell, C. Anastomotic leaks in colorectal surgery. ANZ J. Surg. 2014, 84, 763–768. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- McDermott, F.D.; Heeney, A.; Kelly, M.E.; Steele, R.J.; Carlson, G.L.; Winter, D.C. Systematic review of preoperative, intraoperative and postoperative risk factors for colorectal anastomotic leaks. BJS 2015, 102, 462–479. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Akiyoshi, T.; Ueno, M.; Fukunaga, Y.; Nagayama, S.; Fujimoto, Y.; Konishi, T.; Kuroyanagi, H.; Yamaguchi, T. Incidence of and risk factors for anastomotic leakage after laparoscopic anterior resection with intracorporeal rectal transection and double-stapling technique anastomosis for rectal cancer. Am. J. Surg. 2011, 202, 259–264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tortorelli, A.P.; Alfieri, S.; Sanchez, A.M.; Rosa, F.; Papa, V.; Di Miceli, D.; Bellantone, C.; Doglietto, G.B. Anastomotic Leakage after Anterior Resection for Rectal Cancer with Mesorectal Excision: Incidence, Risk Factors, and Management. Am. Surg. 2015, 81, 41–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Naumann, D.N.; Bhangu, A.; Kelly, M.; Bowley, D.M. Stapled versus handsewn intestinal anastomosis in emergency laparotomy: A systemic review and meta-analysis. Surgery 2015, 157, 609–618. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Slesser, A.A.P.; Pellino, G.; Shariq, O.; Cocker, D.; Kontovounisios, C.; Rasheed, S.; Tekkis, P.P. Compression versus hand-sewn and stapled anastomosis in colorectal surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Tech. Coloproctol. 2016, 20, 667–676. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jayne, D.G.; Thorpe, H.C.; Copeland, J.; Quirke, P.; Brown, J.M.; Guillou, P.J. Five-year follow-up of the Medical Research Council CLASICC trial of laparoscopically assisted versus open surgery for colorectal cancer. BJS 2010, 97, 1638–1645. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vasiliu, E.C.Z.; Zarnescu, N.O.; Costea, R.; Neagu, S. Review of Risk Factors for Anastomotic Leakage in Colorectal Surgery. Chir. 2015, 110, 319. [Google Scholar]
- Vennix, S.; Pelzers, L.; Bouvy, N.; Beets, G.L.; Pierie, J.-P.; Wiggers, T.; Breukink, S. Laparoscopic versus open total mesorectal excision for rectal cancer. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2014, 4, CD005200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kim, N.-K.; Kang, J. Optimal total mesorectal excision for rectal cancer: The role of robotic surgery from an expert’s view. J. Korean Soc. Coloproctol 2010, 26, 377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cho, M.S.; Baek, S.J.; Hur, H.; Min, B.S.; Baik, S.H.; Lee, K.Y.; Kim, N.K. Short and long-term outcomes of robotic versus laparoscopic total mesorectal excision for rectal cancer: A case-matched retrospective study. Medicine 2015, 94, e522. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lim, D.R.; Bae, S.U.; Hur, H.; Min, B.S.; Baik, S.H.; Lee, K.Y.; Kim, N.K. Long-term oncological outcomes of robotic versus laparoscopic total mesorectal excision of mid–low rectal cancer following neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy. Surg. Endosc. 2016, 31, 1728–1737. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, J.A.E.; King, P.M.; Lane, R.H.S.; Thompson, M.R. Evidence of the effect of ‘specialization’ on the management, surgical outcome and survival from colorectal cancer in Wessex. BJS 2003, 90, 583–592. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Singh, K.K.; Aitken, R.J. Outcome in patients with colorectal cancer managed by surgical trainees. BJS 2002, 86, 1332–1336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fujiwata, H.; Kuga, T.; Esato, K. High submucosal blood flow and low anastomotic tension prevent anastomotic leakage in rabbits. Surg. Today 1997, 27, 924–929. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Attard, J.-A.P.; Raval, M.J.; Martin, G.R.; Kolb, J.; Afrouzian, M.; Buie, D.W.; Sigalet, D.L. The Effects of Systemic Hypoxia on Colon Anastomotic Healing: An Animal Model. Dis. Colon Rectum 2005, 48, 1460–1470. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sheridan, W.G.; Lowndes, R.H.; Young, H.L. Tissue oxygen tension as a predictor of colonic anastomotic healing. Dis. Colon Rectum 1987, 30, 867–871. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Khan, A.A.; Wheeler, J.M.D.; Cunningham, C.; George, B.; Kettlewell, M.; Mortensen, N.J.M. The management and outcome of anastomotic leaks in colorectal surgery. Colorectal Dis. 2008, 10, 587–592. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sutton, C.D.; Marshall, L.J.; Williams, N.; Berry, D.P.; Thomas, W.M.; Kelly, M.J. Colo-rectal anastomotic leakage often masquerades as a cardiac complication. Colorectal Dis. 2003, 6, 21–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karliczek, A.; Harlaar, N.J.; Zeebregts, C.J.; Wiggers, T.; Baas, P.C.; Van Dam, G.M. Surgeons lack predictive accuracy for anastomotic leakage in gastrointestinal surgery. Int. J. Colorectal Dis. 2009, 24, 569–576. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Liu, Y.; Wan, X.; Wang, G.; Ren, Y.; Cheng, Y.; Zhao, Y.; Han, G. A scoring system to predict the risk of anastomotic leakage after anterior resection for rectal cancer. J. Surg. Oncol. 2014, 109, 122–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dekker, J.W.T.; Liefers, G.J.; Otterloo, J.C.D.M.V.; Putter, H.; Tollenaar, R.A. Predicting the Risk of Anastomotic Leakage in Left-sided Colorectal Surgery Using a Colon Leakage Score. J. Surg. Res. 2011, 166, e27–e34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martin, G.; Dupré, A.; Mulliez, A.; Prunel, F.; Slim, K.; Pezet, D. Validation of a score for the early diagnosis of anastomotic leakage following elective colorectal surgery. J. Visc. Surg. 2015, 152, 5–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dulk, M.D.; Witvliet, M.J.; Kortram, K.; Neijenhuis, P.A.; De Hingh, I.H.; Engel, A.F.; Van De Velde, C.J.; De Brauw, L.M.; Putter, H.; Brouwers, M.A.; et al. The DULK (Dutch leakage) and modified DULK score compared: Actively seek the leak. Colorectal Dis. 2013, 15, e528–e533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khoury, W.; Ben-Yehuda, A.; Ben-Haim, M.; Klausner, J.M.; Szold, O. Abdominal Computed Tomography for Diagnosing Postoperative Lower Gastrointestinal Tract Leaks. J. Gastrointest. Surg. 2009, 13, 1454–1458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nesbakken, A.; Nygaard, K.; Lunde, O.C.; Blucher, J.; Gjertsen, O.; Dullerud, R. Anastomotic leak following mesorectal excision for rectal cancer: True incidence and diagnostic challenges. Colorectal Dis. 2005, 7, 576–581. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gollgher, J.; Graham, N.; de Dombal, F. Anastomotic dehiscence after anterior resection of rectum and sigmold. Br. J. Surg. 1970, 57, 109–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tang, C.-L.; Seow-Choen, F. Digital rectal examination compares favourably with conventional water-soluble contrast enema in the assessment of anastomotic healing after low rectal excision: A cohort study. Int. J. Colorectal Dis. 2004, 20, 262–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Williams, C.E.; Makin, C.A.; Reeve, R.G.; Ellenbogen, S.B. Over-utilisation of radiography in the assessment of stapled colonic anastomoses. Eur. J. Radiol. 1991, 12, 35–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Akyol, A.M.; McGregor, J.R.; Galloway, D.J.; George, W.D. Early postoperative contrast radiology in the assessment of colorectal anastomotic integrity. Int. J. Colorectal Dis. 1992, 7, 141–143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nicksa, G.A.; Dring, R.V.; Johnson, K.H.; Sardella, W.V.; Vignati, P.V.; Cohen, J.L. Anastomotic Leaks: What is the Best Diagnostic Imaging Study? Dis. Colon Rectum 2007, 50, 197–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Power, N.; Atri, M.; Ryan, S.; Haddad, R.; Smith, A. CT assessment of anastomotic bowel leak. Clin. Radiol. 2007, 62, 37–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Foster, M.E.; Laycock, J.R.D.; Silver, I.A.; Leaper, D.J. Hypovolaemia and healing in colonic anastomoses. BJS 1985, 72, 831–834. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brandstrup, B.; Tønnesen, H.; Beier-Holgersen, R.; Hjortsø, E.; Ørding, H.; Lindorff-Larsen, K.; Rasmussen, M.S.; Lanng, C.; Wallin, L.; Iversen, L.H. Effects of intravenous fluid restriction on postoperative complications: Comparison of two perioperative fluid regimens: A randomized assessor-blinded multicenter trial. Ann. Surg. 2003, 238, 641–648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kurz, A.; Sessler, D.I.; Lenhardt, R. Perioperative Normothermia to Reduce the Incidence of Surgical-Wound Infection and Shorten Hospitalization. N. Engl. J. Med. 1996, 334, 1209–1216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Belda, F.J.; Aguilera, L.; De La Asunción, J.G.; Alberti, J.; Vicente, R.; Ferrándiz, L.; Rodríguez, R.; Sessler, D.I.; Aguilar, G.; Botello, S.G. Supplemental perioperative oxygen and the risk of surgical wound infection: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2005, 294, 2035–2042. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gan, T.J.; Soppitt, A.; Maroof, M.; El-Moalem, H.; Robertson, K.M.; Moretti, E.; Dwane, P.; Glass, P.S.A. Goal-directed Intraoperative Fluid Administration Reduces Length of Hospital Stay after Major Surgery. J. Am. Soc. Anesthesiol. 2002, 97, 820–826. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Donati, A.; Loggi, S.; Preiser, J.-C.; Orsetti, G.; Munch, C.; Gabbanelli, V.; Pelaia, P.; Pietropaoli, P. Goal-Directed Intraoperative Therapy Reduces Morbidity and Length of Hospital Stay in High-Risk Surgical Patients. Chest 2007, 132, 1817–1824. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kimberger, M.D.O.; Arnberger, M.D.M.; Brandt, M.D.S.; Plock, M.D.J.; Gisli, M.D.P.D.; Sigurdsson, H.; Kurz, M.D.A.; Hiltebrand, M.D.L. Goal-directed Colloid Administration Improves the Microcirculation of Healthy and Perianastomotic Colon. Anesthesiology 2009, 110, 496–504. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ghasemi, M.; Nabipour, I.; Omrani, A.; Alipour, Z.; Assadi, M. Precision medicine and molecular imaging: New targeted approaches toward cancer therapeutic and diagnosis. Am. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging 2016, 6, 310–327. [Google Scholar]
- Katsnelson, A. Momentum grows to make ’personalized’ medicine more ’precise’. Nat. Med. 2013, 19, 249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- National Research Council. The National Academies Collection: Reports Funded by National Institutes of Health, Toward Precision Medicine: Building a Knowledge Network for Biomedical Research and a New Taxonomy of Disease; National Academy of Sciences: Washington, DC, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Atkinson, A.J., Jr.; Colburn, W.A.; DeGruttola, V.G.; DeMets, D.L.; Downing, G.J.; Hoth, D.F.; Oates, J.A.; Peck, C.C.; Schooley, R.T. Biomarkers and surrogate endpoints: Preferred definitions and conceptual framework. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 2001, 69, 89–95. [Google Scholar]
- Mandrekar, S.J.; Sargent, D.J. Clinical Trial Designs for Predictive Biomarker Validation: Theoretical Considerations and Practical Challenges. J. Clin. Oncol. 2009, 27, 4027–4034. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Polley, M.-Y.C.; Freidlin, B.; Korn, E.L.; Conley, B.A.; Abrams, J.S.; McShane, L.M. Statistical and Practical Considerations for Clinical Evaluation of Predictive Biomarkers. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2013, 105, 1677–1683. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ludwig, J.A.; Weinstein, J.N. Biomarkers in Cancer Staging, Prognosis and Treatment Selection. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2005, 5, 845–856. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beard, J.D.; Nicholson, M.L.; Sayers, R.D.; Lloyd, D.; Everson, N.W. Intraoperative air testing of colorectal anastomoses: A prospective, randomized trial. BJS 1990, 77, 1095–1097. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ivanov, D.; Cvijanovic, R.; Gvozdenovic, L. Intraoperative air testing of colorectal anastomoses. Srp. Arh. Za Celok. Lek. 2011, 139, 333–338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Li, V.K.M.; Wexner, S.D.; Pulido, N.; Wang, H.; Jin, H.Y.; Weiss, E.G.; Nogeuras, J.J.; Sands, D.R. Use of routine intraoperative endoscopy in elective laparoscopic colorectal surgery: Can it further avoid anastomotic failure? Surg. Endosc. 2009, 23, 2459–2465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shamiyeh, A.; Szabo, K.; Wayand, W.U.; Zehetner, J. Intraoperative Endoscopy for the Assessment of Circular-stapled Anastomosis in Laparoscopic Colon Surgery. Surg. Laparosc. Endosc. Percutaneous Tech. 2012, 22, 65–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Brugiotti, C.; Corazza, V.; Peruzzi, A.; Lozano, C.; Casadevall, E.; Ques, F.; Ferrer, S.; Canaves, J.; Amurrio, R.; Rodriguez, J. The efficacy of intraoperative endoscopic control of the colorectal stapled anastomosis after anterior resection of the rectum for rectal cancer: P31. Colorectal Dis. 2011, 13, 31–32. [Google Scholar]
- Karliczek, A.; Benaron, D.A.; Baas, P.C.; Zeebregts, C.J.; Wiggers, T.; Van Dam, G.M. Intraoperative assessment of microperfusion with visible light spectroscopy for prediction of anastomotic leakage in colorectal anastomoses. Colorectal Dis. 2009, 12, 1018–1025. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hirano, Y.; Omura, K.; Tatsuzawa, Y.; Shimizu, J.; Kawaura, Y.; Watanabe, G. Tissue Oxygen Saturation during Colorectal Surgery Measured by Near-infrared Spectroscopy: Pilot Study to Predict Anastomotic Complications. World J. Surg. 2006, 30, 457–461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kudszus, S.; Roesel, C.; Schachtrupp, A.; Höer, J.J. Intraoperative laser fluorescence angiography in colorectal surgery: A noninvasive analysis to reduce the rate of anastomotic leakage. Langenbeck’s Arch. Surg. 2010, 395, 1025–1030. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boyle, N.; Manifold, D.; Jordan, M.; Mason, R. Intraoperative assessment of colonic perfusion using scanning laser doppler flowmetry during colonic resection11No competing interests declared. J. Am. Coll. Surg. 2000, 191, 504–510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Servais, E.L.; Rizk, N.P.; Oliveira, L.; Rusch, V.W.; Bikson, M.; Adusumilli, P.S. Real-time intraoperative detection of tissue hypoxia in gastrointestinal surgery by wireless pulse oximetry. Surg. Endosc. 2011, 25, 1383–1389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Myers, C.; Mutafyan, G.; Petersen, R.; Pryor, A.; Reynolds, J.; DeMaria, E. Real-time probe measurement of tissue oxygenation during gastrointestinal stapling: Mucosal ischemia occurs and is not influenced by staple height. Surg. Endosc. 2009, 23, 2345–2350. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Salusjärvi, J.M.; Carpelan-Holmström, M.A.; Louhimo, J.M.; Kruuna, O.; Scheinin, T.M. Intraoperative colonic pulse oximetry in left-sided colorectal surgery: Can it predict anastomotic leak? Int. J. Colorectal Dis. 2018, 33, 333–336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cahill, A.R.; Mortensen, N.J. Intraoperative augmented reality for laparoscopic colorectal surgery by intraoperative near-infrared fluorescence imaging and optical coherence tomography. Minerva Chir. 2010, 65, 451–462. [Google Scholar]
- Matsui, A.; Winer, J.H.; Laurence, R.G.; Frangioni, J.V. Predicting the survival of experimental ischaemic small bowel using intraoperative near-infrared fluorescence angiography. BJS 2011, 98, 1725–1734. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Armstrong, G.; Croft, J.; Corrigan, N.; Brown, J.M.; Goh, V.; Quirke, P.; Hulme, C.; Tolan, D.; Kirby, A.; Cahill, R.; et al. IntAct: Intra-operative fluorescence angiography to prevent anastomotic leak in rectal cancer surgery: A randomized controlled trial. Colorectal Dis. 2018, 20, O226–O234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Shandall, A.; Lowndes, R.; Young, H.L. Colonic anastomotic healing and oxygen tension. BJS 2005, 72, 606–609. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Locke, R.; Hauser, C.J.; Shoemaker, W.C. The Use of Surface Oximetry to Assess Bowel Viability. Arch. Surg. 1984, 119, 1252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sheridan, W.G.; Lowndes, R.H.; Young, H.L. Intraoperative tissue oximetry in the human gastrointestinal tract. Am. J. Surg. 1990, 159, 314–319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Clifford, R.E.; Fowler, H.; Manu, N.; Sutton, P.; Vimalachandran, D. Intra-operative assessment of left-sided colorectal anastomotic integrity: A systematic review of available techniques. Colorectal Dis. 2020, 23, 582–591. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- 2019 Safe-Anastomosis Programme in Colorectal Surgery (EAGLE). The European Society of Coloproctology. Available online: https://www.escp.eu.com/research/cohort-studies/2019-escp-safe-anastomosis-programme-in-colorectal-surgery (accessed on 8 April 2021).
- Corke, C.; Glenister, K. Monitoring intestinal ischaemia. Crit. Care Resusc. 2001, 3, 176–180. [Google Scholar]
- Klaus, S.; Heringlake, M.; Gliemroth, J.; Bruch, H.-P.; Bahlmann, L. Intraperitoneal microdialysis for detection of splanchnic metabolic disorders. Langenbeck’s Arch. Surg. 2002, 387, 276–280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sommer, T.; Larsen, J.F. Intraperitoneal and intraluminal microdialysis in the detection of experimental regional intestinal ischaemia. BJS 2004, 91, 855–861. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jansson, K.; Ungerstedt, J.; Jonsson, T.; Redler, B.; Andersson, M.; Ungerstedt, U.; Norgren, L. Human intraperitoneal microdialysis: Increased lactate/pyruvate ratio suggests early visceral ischaemia. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 2003, 38, 1007–1011. [Google Scholar]
- Jansson, K.; Jansson, M.; Andersson, M.; Magnuson, A.; Ungerstedt, U.; Norgren, L. Normal values and differences between intraperitoneal and subcutaneous microdialysis in patients after non-complicated gastrointestinal surgery. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Investig. 2005, 65, 273–282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Matthiessen, P.; Strand, I.; Jansson, K.; Törnquist, C.; Andersson, M.; Rutegård, J.; Norgren, L. Is Early Detection of Anastomotic Leakage Possible by Intraperitoneal Microdialysis and Intraperitoneal Cytokines After Anterior Resection of the Rectum for Cancer? Dis. Colon Rectum 2007, 50, 1918–1927. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pedersen, M.E.; Qvist, N.; Bisgaard, C.; Kelly, U.; Bernhard, A.; Pedersen, S.M. Peritoneal Microdialysis. Early diagnosis of Anastomotic Leakage after Low Anterior Resection for Rectosigmoid Cancer. Scand. J. Surg. 2009, 98, 148–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Oikonomakis, I.; Jansson, D.; Hörer, T.M.; Skoog, P.; Nilsson, K.; Jansson, K. Results of postoperative microdialysis intraperitoneal and at the anastomosis in patients developing anastomotic leakage after rectal cancer surgery. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 2019, 54, 1261–1268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hörer, T.M.; Norgren, L.; Jansson, K. Intraperitoneal glycerol levels and lactate/pyruvate ratio: Early markers of postoperative complications. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 2011, 46, 913–919. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bini, R.; Ferrari, G.; Aprà, F.; Viora, T.; Leli, R.; Cotogni, P. Peritoneal lactate as a potential biomarker for predicting the need for reintervention after abdominal surgery. J. Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2014, 77, 376–380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Daams, F.; Wu, Z.; Cakir, H.; Karsten, T.M.; Lange, J.F. Identification of anastomotic leakage after colorectal surgery using microdialysis of the peritoneal cavity. Tech. Coloproctol. 2013, 18, 65–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ellebæk, M.B.; Rahr, H.B.; Boye, S.; Fristrup, C.; Qvist, N. Detection of early anastomotic leakage by intraperitoneal microdialysis after low anterior resection for rectal cancer: A prospective cohort study. Colorectal Dis. 2019, 21, 1387–1396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Millan, M.; García-Granero, E.; Flor, B.; García-Botello, S.; Lledo, S. Early prediction of anastomotic leak in colorectal cancer surgery by intramucosal pH. Dis. Colon Rectum 2006, 49, 595–601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yang, L.; Huang, X.-E.; Xu, L.; Zhou, X.; Zhou, J.-N.; Yu, D.-S.; Li, D.-Z.; Guan, X. Acidic Pelvic Drainage as a Predictive Factor For Anastomotic Leakage after Surgery for Patients with Rectal Cancer. Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev. 2013, 14, 5441–5447. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Marland, J.R.K.; Gray, M.E.; Dunare, C.; Blair, E.O.; Tsiamis, A.; Sullivan, P.; González-Fernández, E.; Greenhalgh, S.N.; Gregson, R.; Clutton, R.E.; et al. Real-time measurement of tumour hypoxia using an implantable microfabricated oxygen sensor. Sens. Bio-Sens. Res. 2020, 30, 1–12. [Google Scholar]
- Marland, J.R.K.; Blair, E.O.; Flynn, B.W.; González-Fernández, E.; Huang, L.; Kunkler, I.H.; Smith, S.; Staderini, M.; Tsiamis, A.; Ward, C.; et al. Implantable Microsystems for Personalised Anticancer Therapy. In CMOS Circuits for Biological Sensing and Processing; Mitra, S., Cumming, D.R.S., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2018; pp. 259–286. [Google Scholar]
- Gray, M.E.; Marland, J.R.K.; Dunare, C.; Blair, E.O.; Meehan, J.; Tsiamis, A.; Kunkler, I.H.; Murray, A.F.; Argyle, D.; Dyson, A.; et al. In vivo validation of a miniaturized electrochemical oxygen sensor for measuring intestinal oxygen tension. Am. J. Physiol. Liver Physiol. 2019, 317, G242–G252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Badia, J.M.; Whawell, S.A.; Scott-Coombes, D.M.; Abel, P.D.; Williamson, R.C.N.; Thompson, J.N. Peritoneal and systemic cytokine response to laparotomy. BJS 1996, 83, 347–348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Welsch, T.; Müller, S.A.; Ulrich, A.; Kischlat, A.; Hinz, U.; Kienle, P.; Büchler, M.W.; Schmidt, J.; Schmied, B.M. C-reactive protein as early predictor for infectious postoperative complications in rectal surgery. Int. J. Colorectal Dis. 2007, 22, 1499–1507. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Matthiessen, P.; Henriksson, M.; Hallböök, O.; Grunditz, E.; Norén, B.; Arbman, G. Increase of serum C-reactive protein is an early indicator of subsequent symptomatic anastomotic leakage after anterior resection. Colorectal Dis. 2007, 10, 75–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Woeste, G.; Müller, C.; Bechstein, W.O.; Wullstein, C. Increased Serum Levels of C-Reactive Protein Precede Anastomotic Leakage in Colorectal Surgery. World J. Surg. 2009, 34, 140–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pedersen, T.; Roikjær, O.; Jess, P. Increased levels of C-reactive protein and leukocyte count are poor predictors of anastomotic leakage following laparoscopic colorectal resection. Dan. Med. J. 2012, 59, 1–4. [Google Scholar]
- Almeida, A.; Faria, G.; Moreira, H.; Pinto-De-Sousa, J.; Correia-Da-Silva, P.; Maia, J.C. Elevated serum C-reactive protein as a predictive factor for anastomotic leakage in colorectal surgery. Int. J. Surg. 2012, 10, 87–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lagoutte, N.; Facy, O.; Ravoire, A.; Chalumeau, C.; Jonval, L.; Rat, P.; Ortega-Deballon, P. C-reactive protein and procalcitonin for the early detection of anastomotic leakage after elective colorectal surgery: Pilot study in 100 patients. J. Visc. Surg. 2012, 149, e345–e349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reisinger, K.W.; Poeze, M.; Hulsewé, K.W.; van Acker, B.A.; van Bijnen, A.A.; Hoofwijk, A.G.; Stoot, J.; Derikx, J.P. Accurate Prediction of Anastomotic Leakage after Colorectal Surgery Using Plasma Markers for Intestinal Damage and Inflammation. J. Am. Coll. Surg. 2014, 219, 744–751. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zawadzki, M.; Czarnecki, R.; Rzaca, M.; Obuszko, Z.; Velchuru, V.R.; Witkiewicz, W. C-reactive protein and procalcitonin predict anastomotic leaks following colorectal cancer resections–a prospective study. Videosurg. Other Miniinvasive Tech. 2015, 10, 567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Waterland, P.; Ng, J.; Jones, A.; Broadley, G.; Nicol, D.; Patel, H.; Pandey, S. Using CRP to predict anastomotic leakage after open and laparoscopic colorectal surgery: Is there a difference? Int. J. Colorectal Dis. 2016, 31, 861–868. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Giaccaglia, V.; Salvi, P.F.; Antonelli, M.S.; Nigri, G.R.; Corcione, F.; Pirozzi, F.; De Manzini, N.; Casagranda, B.; Balducci, G.; Ziparo, V. Procalcitonin reveals early dehiscence in colorectal surgery: The PREDICS study. J. Am. Coll. Surg. 2014, 219, e8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mik, M.; Dziki, L.; Berut, M.; Trzcinski, R.; Dziki, A. Neutrophil to Lymphocyte Ratio and C-Reactive Protein as Two Predictive Tools of Anastomotic Leak in Colorectal Cancer Open Surgery. Dig. Surg. 2017, 35, 77–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, S.R.; Pockney, P.; Holmes, R.; Doig, F.; Attia, J.; Holliday, E.; Carroll, R.; Draganic, B. Biomarkers and anastomotic leakage in colorectal surgery: C-reactive protein trajectory is the gold standard. ANZ J. Surg. 2018, 88, 440–444. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reynolds, I.S.; Boland, M.R.; Reilly, F.; Deasy, A.; Majeed, M.H.; Deasy, J.; Burke, J.P.; McNamara, D.A. C-reactive protein as a predictor of anastomotic leak in the first week after anterior resection for rectal cancer. Colorectal Dis. 2017, 19, 812–818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Warschkow, R.; Tarantino, I.; Torzewski, M.; Näf, F.; Lange, J.; Steffen, T. Diagnostic accuracy of C-reactive protein and white blood cell counts in the early detection of inflammatory complications after open resection of colorectal cancer: A retrospective study of 1187 patients. Int. J. Colorectal Dis. 2011, 26, 1405–1413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kørner, H.; Nielsen, H.J.; Søreide, J.A.; Nedrebø, B.S.; Søreide, K.; Knapp, J.C. Diagnostic Accuracy of C-reactive Protein for Intraabdominal Infections After Colorectal Resections. J. Gastrointest. Surg. 2009, 13, 1599–1606. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ho, Y.M.; Laycock, J.; Kirubakaran, A.; Hussain, L.; Clark, J. Systematic use of the serum C-reactive protein concentration and computed tomography for the detection of intestinal anastomotic leaks. ANZ J. Surg. 2019, 90, 109–112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Messias, B.A.; Botelho, R.V.; Saad, S.S.; Mocchetti, E.R.; Turke, K.C.; Waisberg, J. Serum C-reactive protein is a useful marker to exclude anastomotic leakage after colorectal surgery. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Singh, P.P.; Zeng, I.S.; Srinivasa, S.; Lemanu, D.P.; Connolly, A.B.; Hill, A.G. Systematic review and meta-analysis of use of serum C-reactive protein levels to predict anastomotic leak after colorectal surgery. BJS 2014, 101, 339–346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stephensen, B.; Reid, F.; Shaikh, S.; Carroll, R.; Smith, S.; Pockney, P. C-reactive protein trajectory to predict colorectal anastomotic leak. Br. J. Surg. 2020, 107, 1832–1837. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hübner, M.; Mantziari, S.; Demartines, N.; Pralong, F.; Coti-Bertrand, P.; Schäfer, M. Postoperative Albumin Drop Is a Marker for Surgical Stress and a Predictor for Clinical Outcome: A Pilot Study. Gastroenterol. Res. Pract. 2016, 2016, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lago, V.; Fotopoulou, C.; Chiantera, V.; Minig, L.; Gil-Moreno, A.; Cascales-Campos, P.; Jurado, M.; Tejerizo, A.; Padilla-Iserte, P.; Malune, M.; et al. Risk factors for anastomotic leakage after colorectal resection in ovarian cancer surgery: A multi-centre study. Gynecol. Oncol. 2019, 153, 549–554. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ge, X.; Cao, Y.; Wang, H.; Ding, C.; Tian, H.; Zhang, X.; Gong, J.; Zhu, W.; Li, N. Diagnostic accuracy of the postoperative ratio of C-reactive protein to albumin for complications after colorectal surgery. World J. Surg. Oncol. 2017, 15, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yu, Y.; Wu, Z.; Shen, Z.; Cao, Y. Preoperative C-reactive protein-to-albumin ratio predicts anastomotic leak in elderly patients after curative colorectal surgery. Cancer Biomark. 2020, 27, 295–302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maruna, P.; Nedelníková, K.; Gürlich, R. Physiology and genetics of procalcitonin. Physiol. Res. 2000, 49, S57–S62. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Zielińska-Borkowska, U.; Dib, N.; Tarnowski, W.; Skirecki, T. Monitoring of procalcitonin but not interleukin-6 is useful for the early prediction of anastomotic leakage after colorectal surgery. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 2017, 55, 1053–1059. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Garcia-Granero, A.; Frasson, M.; Flor-Lorente, B.; Blanco, F.; Puga, R.; Carratalá, A.; Garcia-Granero, E. Procalcitonin and C-reactive protein as early predictors of anastomotic leak in colorectal surgery: A prospective observational study. Dis. Colon Rectum 2013, 56, 475–483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Muñoz, J.L.; Alvarez, M.O.; Cuquerella, V.; Miranda, E.; Picó, C.; Flores, R.; Resalt-Pereira, M.; Moya, P.; Pérez, A.; Arroyo, A. Procalcitonin and C-reactive protein as early markers of anastomotic leak after laparoscopic colorectal surgery within an enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) program. Surg. Endosc. 2018, 32, 4003–4010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dinarello, A.C. Role of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines during inflammation: Experimental and clinical findings. J. Boil. Regul. Homeost. Agents 1997, 11, 91–103. [Google Scholar]
- Lin, E.; Calvano, S.E.; Lowry, S.F. Inflammatory cytokines and cell response in surgery. Surgery 2000, 127, 117–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hack, C.E.; Aarden, L.A.; Thus, L.G. Role of Cytokines in Sepsis. Dev. Funct. Myeloid Subsets 1997, 66, 101–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tsukada, K.; Katoh, H.; Shiojima, M.; Suzuki, T.; Takenoshita, S.; Nagamachi, Y. Concentrations of cytokines in peritoneal fluid after abdominal surgery. Eur. J. Surg. 1993, 159, 475–479. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Tsukada, K.; Takenoshita, S.-I.; Nagamachi, Y. Peritoneal interleukin-6, interleukin-8 and granulocyte elastase activity after elective abdominal surgery. APMIS 1994, 102, 837–840. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Baker, E.A.; Gaddal, S.E.-; Aitken, D.G.; Leaper, D.J. Growth factor profiles in intraperitoneal drainage fluid following colorectal surgery: Relationship to wound healing and surgery. Wound Repair Regen. 2003, 11, 261–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wiik, H.; Karttunen, R.; Haukipuro, K.; Syrjälä, H. Maximal local and minimal systemic cytokine response to colorectal surgery: The influence of perioperative filgrastim. Cytokine 2001, 14, 188–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jansson, K.; Redler, B.; Truedsson, L.; Magnuson, A.; Matthiessen, P.; Andersson, M.; Norgren, L. Intraperitoneal cytokine response after major surgery: Higher postoperative intraperitoneal versus systemic cytokine levels suggest the gastrointestinal tract as the major source of the postoperative inflammatory reaction. Am. J. Surg. 2004, 187, 372–377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Herwig, R.; Glodny, B.; Kühle, C.; Schlüter, B.; Brinkmann, O.A.; Strasser, H.; Senninger, N.; Winde, G. Early Identification of Peritonitis by Peritoneal Cytokine Measurement. Dis. Colon Rectum 2002, 45, 514–521. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Uğraş, B.; Giriş, M.; Erbil, Y.; Gökpınar, M.; Çıtlak, G.; İşsever, H.; Bozbora, A.; Öztezcan, S. Early prediction of anastomotic leakage after colorectal surgery by measuring peritoneal cytokines: Prospective study. Int. J. Surg. 2008, 6, 28–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Sammour, T.; Singh, P.P.; Zargar-Shoshtari, K.; Su’A, B.; Hill, A.G. Peritoneal Cytokine Levels Can Predict Anastomotic Leak on the First Postoperative Day. Dis. Colon Rectum 2016, 59, 551–556. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rettig, T.C.D.; Verwijmeren, L.; Dijkstra, I.M.; Boerma, D.; van de Garde, E.M.W.; Noordzij, P.G. Postoperative Interleukin-6 Level and Early Detection of Complications After Elective Major Abdominal Surgery. Ann. Surg. 2016, 263, 1207–1212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fouda, E.; El Nakeeb, A.; Magdy, A.; Hammad, E.A.; Othman, G.; Farid, M. Early Detection of Anastomotic Leakage after Elective Low Anterior Resection. J. Gastrointest. Surg. 2010, 15, 137–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yamamoto, T.; Umegae, S.; Matsumoto, K.; Saniabadi, A.R. Peritoneal cytokines as early markers of peritonitis following surgery for colorectal carcinoma: A prospective study. Cytokine 2011, 53, 239–242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bertram, P.; Junge, K.; Schachtrupp, A.; Götze, C.; Kunz, D.; Schumpelick, V. Peritoneal release of TNFα and IL-6 after elective colorectal surgery and anastomotic leakage. J. Investig. Surg. 2003, 16, 65–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alonso, S.; Pascual, M.; Salvans, S.; Mayol, X.; Mojal, S.; Gil, M.; Grande, L.; Pera, M. Postoperative intra-abdominal infection and colorectal cancer recurrence: A prospective matched cohort study of inflammatory and angiogenic responses as mechanisms involved in this association. Eur. J. Surg. Oncol. 2015, 41, 208–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zawadzki, M.; Krzystek-Korpacka, M.; Gamian, A.; Witkiewicz, W. Serum cytokines in early prediction of anastomotic leakage following low anterior resection. Videosurg. Other Miniinvasive Tech. 2018, 13, 33–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fagerhol, M.K. Calprotectin, a faecal marker of organic gastrointestinal abnormality. Lancet 2000, 356, 1783–1784. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cikot, M.; Kones, O.; Gedikbası, A.; Kocatas, A.; Karabulut, M.; Temizgonul, K.B.; Alis, H.; Information, P.E.K.F.C. The marker C-reactive protein is helpful in monitoring the integrity of anastomosis: Plasma calprotectin. Am. J. Surg. 2016, 212, 53–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Morandi, E.; Monteleone, M.; Merlini, D.; Vignati, G.; D’Aponte, T.; Castoldi, M. P0071 Faecal calprotectin as an early biomarker of colorectal anastomotic leak. Eur. J. Cancer 2015, 51, e15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Popescu, G.A.; Jung, I.; Cordoş, B.A.; Azamfirei, L.; Huţanu, A.; Gurzu, S. Intestinal fatty acid-binding protein, as a marker of anastomotic leakage after colonic resection in rats. Rom. J. Morphol. Embryol. 2018, 59, 1075–1081. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Plat, V.D.; Derikx, J.P.M.; Jongen, A.C.; Nielsen, K.; Sonneveld, D.J.A.; Tersteeg, J.J.C.; Crolla, R.M.P.H.; van Dam, D.A.; Cense, H.A.; de Meij, T.G.J.; et al. Diagnostic accuracy of urinary intestinal fatty acid binding protein in detecting colorectal anastomotic leakage. Tech. Coloproctol. 2020, 24, 449–454. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Miller, K.; Arrer, E.; Leitner, C. Early detection of anastomotic leaks after low anterior resection of the rectum. Dis. Colon Rectum 1996, 39, 1081–1085. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Murr, C.; Widner, B.; Wirleitner, B.; Fuchs, D. Neopterin as a Marker for Immune System Activation. Curr. Drug Metab. 2002, 3, 175–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baydar, T.; Yuksel, O.; Sahin, T.T.; Dikmen, K.; Girgin, G.; Sipahi, H.; Kurukahvecioglu, O.; Bostanci, H.; Şare, M. Neopterin as a prognostic biomarker in intensive care unit patients. J. Crit. Care 2009, 24, 318–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Girgin, G.; Sahin, T.T.; Fuchs, D.; Yuksel, O.; Kurukahvecioglu, O.; Şare, M.; Baydar, T. Tryptophan degradation and serum neopterin concentrations in intensive care unit patients. Toxicol. Mech. Methods 2010, 21, 231–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dusek, T.; Örhalmi, J.; Sotona, O.; Krčmová, L.K.; Javorska, L.; Dolejs, J.; Páral, J. Neopterin, kynurenine and tryptophan as new biomarkers for early detection of rectal anastomotic leakage. Videosurg. Other Miniinvasive Tech. 2018, 13, 44–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Käser, S.A.; Furler, R.; Evequoz, D.C.; Maurer, C.A. Hyponatremia Is a Specific Marker of Perforation in Sigmoid Diverticulitis or Appendicitis in Patients Older than 50 Years. Gastroenterol. Res. Pract. 2013, 2013, 1–4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Swart, R.M.; Hoorn, E.J.; Betjes, M.G.; Zietse, R. Hyponatremia and Inflammation: The Emerging Role of Interleukin-6 in Osmoregulation. Nephron 2011, 118, p45–p51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sharshar, T.; Blanchard, A.; Paillard, M.; Raphael, J.C.; Gajdos, P.; Annane, D. Circulating vasopressin levels in septic shock. Crit. Care Med. 2003, 31, 1752–1758. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Käser, S.A.; Nitsche, U.; Maak, M.; Michalski, C.W.; Späth, C.; Müller, T.C.; Maurer, C.A.; Janssen, K.P.; Kleeff, J.; Friess, H.; et al. Could hyponatremia be a marker of anastomotic leakage after colorectal surgery? A single center analysis of 1,106 patients over 5 years. Langenbeck’s Arch. Surg. 2014, 399, 783–788. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Clark, I.M.; Swingler, T.E.; Sampieri, C.L.; Edwards, D. The regulation of matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. 2008, 40, 1362–1378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chakraborti, S.; Mandal, M.; Das, S.; Mandal, A.; Chakraborti, T. Regulation of matrix metalloproteinases: An overview. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 2003, 253, 269–285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Braskén, P.; Renvall, S.; Sandberg, M. Fibronectin and collagen gene expression in healing experimental colonic anastomoses. BJS 1991, 78, 1048–1052. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kiyama, T.; Onda, M.; Tokunaga, A.; Efron, D.T.; Barbul, A. Effect of matrix metalloproteinase inhibition on colonic anastomotic healing in rats. J. Gastrointest. Surg. 2001, 5, 303–311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Hingh, I.H.J.T.; Siemonsma, M.A.; De Man, B.M.; Lomme, R.M.L.M.; Hendriks, T. The matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor BB-94 improves the strength of intestinal anastomoses in the rat. Int. J. Colorectal Dis. 2002, 17, 348–354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krarup, P.-M.; Eld, M.; Jorgensen, L.N.; Hansen, M.B.; Ågren, M.S. Selective matrix metalloproteinase inhibition increases breaking strength and reduces anastomotic leakage in experimentally obstructed colon. Int. J. Colorectal Dis. 2017, 32, 1277–1284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krarup, P.-M.; Eld, M.; Heinemeier, K.M.; Jorgensen, L.N.; Hansen, M.B.; Ågren, M.S. Expression and inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-8, MMP-9 and MMP-12 in early colonic anastomotic repair. Int. J. Colorectal Dis. 2013, 28, 1151–1159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Stumpf, M.; Klinge, U.; Wilms, A.; Zabrocki, R.; Rosch, R.; Junge, K.; Krones, C.; Schumpelick, V. Changes of the extracellular matrix as a risk factor for anastomotic leakage after large bowel surgery. Surgery 2005, 137, 229–234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baker, E.A.; Leaper, D.J. Profiles of matrix metalloproteinases and their tissue inhibitors in intraperitoneal drainage fluid: Relationship to wound healing. Wound Repair Regen. 2003, 11, 268–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pasternak, B.; Matthiessen, P.; Jansson, K.; Andersson, M.; Aspenberg, P. Elevated intraperitoneal matrix metalloproteinases-8 and-9 in patients who develop anastomotic leakage after rectal cancer surgery: A pilot study. Colorectal Dis. 2010, 12, 93–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Edomskis, P.; Goudberg, M.R.; Sparreboom, C.L.; Menon, A.G.; Wolthuis, A.M.; D’Hoore, A.; Lange, J.F. Matrix metalloproteinase-9 in relation to patients with complications after colorectal surgery: A systematic review. Int. J. Colorectal Dis. 2021, 36, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- De Ruiter, J.; Weel, J.; Manusama, E.; Kingma, W.P.; Van Der Voort, P.H.J. The Epidemiology of Intra-Abdominal Flora in Critically Ill Patients with Secondary and Tertiary Abdominal Sepsis. Infection 2009, 37, 522–527. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brook, I.; Frazier, E.H. Aerobic and anaerobic microbiology in intra-abdominal infections associated with diverticulitis. J. Med. Microbiol. 2000, 49, 827–830. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Komen, N.; Morsink, M.; Beiboer, S.; Miggelbrink, A.; Willemsen, P.; Van Der Harst, E.; Lange, J.; Van Leeuwen, W. Detection of colon flora in peritoneal drain fluid after colorectal surgery: Can RT-PCR play a role in diagnosing anastomotic leakage? J. Microbiol. Methods 2009, 79, 67–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Komen, N.; Slieker, J.; Willemsen, P.; Mannaerts, G.; Pattyn, P.; Karsten, T.; de Wilt, H.; van der Harst, E.; van Leeuwen, W.; Decaestecker, C.; et al. Polymerase chain reaction for Enterococcus faecalis in drain fluid: The first screening test for symptomatic colorectal anastomotic leakage. The Appeal-study: Analysis of Parameters Predictive for Evident Anastomotic Leakage. Int. J. Colorectal Dis. 2014, 29, 15–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pakula, M.; Tanase, D.; Kraal, K.; De Graaf, G.; Lange, J.; French, P. Optical Measurements on Drain Fluid for the Detection of Anastomotic Leakage. In Proceedings of the 2005 3rd IEEE/EMBS Special Topic Conference on Microtechnology in Medicine and Biology, Oahu, HI, USA, 12–15 May 2005; pp. 72–75. [Google Scholar]
- Muhammed, K.O.; Özener, Ç.; Akoglu, E. Diagnostic Value of Effluent Endotoxin Level in Gram-Negative Peritonitis in Capd Patients. Perit. Dial. Int. 2001, 21, 154–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Junger, W.G.; Miller, K.; Bahrami, S.; Redl, H.; Schlag, G.; Moritz, E. Early detection of anastomotic leaks after colorectal surgery by measuring endotoxin in the drainage fluid. Hepatogastroenterology 1996, 43, 1523–1529. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Jansson, K.; Strand, I.; Redler, B.; Magnuson, A.; Ungerstedt, U.; Norgren, L. Results of intraperitoneal microdialysis depend on the location of the catheter. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Investig. 2004, 64, 63–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Merad, F.; Yahchouchi, E.; Hay, J.-M.; Fingerhut, A.; Laborde, Y.; Langlois-Zantain, O. Prophylactic Abdominal Drainage After Elective Colonic Resection and Suprapromontory AnastomosisA Multicenter Study Controlled by Randomization. Arch. Surg. 1998, 133, 309–314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Petrowsky, H.; Demartines, N.; Rousson, V.; Clavien, P.-A. Evidence-based value of prophylactic drainage in gastrointestinal surgery: A systematic review and meta-analyses. Ann. Surg. 2004, 240, 1074. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jesus, E.; Karliczek, A.; Matos, D.; Castro, A.; Atallah, A. Prophylactic anastomotic drainage for colorectal surgery. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2004, CD002100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Patient Factors | Surgical Factors | ||
---|---|---|---|
Age Malnutrition Steroid use Diabetes Hypertension Tobacco use | Cardiovascular disease Gender Alcohol use ASA fitness score Diverticulitis Leukocytosis | Poor anastomotic blood supply Concurrent surgical procedures Poor colonic preparation Peri-operative blood transfusion Anastomotic ischaemia or tension Emergency resection | Intra-operative sepsis Peritonitis Operative time >3 h Pre-operative radiotherapy Anastomotic location Bowel obstruction |
Pre-Operative | Intra-Operative | Post-Operative |
---|---|---|
Surgical factors Patient factors Predictive scoring systems Blood samples Urine samples | Tissue appearance Air leak test Endoscopy Intestinal tissue perfusion Intestinal tissue oxygenation | Scoring systems Clinical assessment Routine bloodwork Imaging Biomarkers: ischaemic, inflammatory, bacterial |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Gray, M.; Marland, J.R.K.; Murray, A.F.; Argyle, D.J.; Potter, M.A. Predictive and Diagnostic Biomarkers of Anastomotic Leakage: A Precision Medicine Approach for Colorectal Cancer Patients. J. Pers. Med. 2021, 11, 471. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm11060471
Gray M, Marland JRK, Murray AF, Argyle DJ, Potter MA. Predictive and Diagnostic Biomarkers of Anastomotic Leakage: A Precision Medicine Approach for Colorectal Cancer Patients. Journal of Personalized Medicine. 2021; 11(6):471. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm11060471
Chicago/Turabian StyleGray, Mark, Jamie R. K. Marland, Alan F. Murray, David J. Argyle, and Mark A. Potter. 2021. "Predictive and Diagnostic Biomarkers of Anastomotic Leakage: A Precision Medicine Approach for Colorectal Cancer Patients" Journal of Personalized Medicine 11, no. 6: 471. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm11060471