Facial Recognition Intensity in Disease Diagnosis Using Automatic Facial Recognition
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Identification and Selection
2.2. Data Extraction and Quality Assessment
2.3. Definition and Calculation of FRI
2.4. Statistical Methods
3. Results
3.1. Systematic Review
3.2. Risk of Bias Assessment of the Eligible Studies
3.3. Meta-Analysis
3.4. Sensitivity Analysis
3.5. Evaluation of Facial Recognition Intensity (FRI)
3.6. Effect of FRI on the Accuracy of Facial Recognition
3.7. Effect of Sample Size of the Training Set and AI Model on the Accuracy of Facial Recognition
3.8. Sources of Heterogeneity
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Disease | Prevalence | Maximum Penetrance (Pmax) | Facial Phenotypes | Facial Recognition Intensity (FRI) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Independent Facial Phenotypes | Number of Facial Phenotypes (Nf) | ||||
Down syndrome [16,17] | 1/300~1000 | 100% | Short face Upward slanting eyes Epicanthus Brushfield spots (white spots on the colored part of the eyes) Low-set ears Small ears Flattened nose Small mouth Protruding tongue | 9 | 9 |
Acromegaly [23,24,25,26] | 7/1000 | 100% | Forehead bulge Prominent jaw Prominent zygomatic arch Deep nasolabial folds Enlarged nose Enlarged brow Enlarged ear Enlarged lip | 8 | 8 |
Cornelia de Lange Syndrome [2,20] | 1/10,000~1/30,000 | 82.7% | Short face Small jaw Arched eyebrows Joined eyebrows Short nose Forward nostril Long philtrum Thin upper lip Upturned corners of the mouth | 9 | 7.443 |
Angelman syndrome [2] | 1/20,000~1/12,000 | 100% | Narrow bifrontal diameter Huge jaw Almond-shaped palpebral fissures Narrow nasal bridge Thin upper lip Protruding tongue | 6 | 6 |
Cushing’s syndrome [27,28] | 4/100,000 | 100% | Red face Full moon face Acne Excessive hair Chemosis conjunctiva | 5 | 5 |
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs) [29] | 7.7/1000 | 100% | Small head Short palpebral fissures Smooth philtrum Thin vermilion border of the upper lip | 4 | 4 |
Turner syndrome [21,22] | 1/2500 | 56% | Small jaw Epicanthus Ptosis Ocular hypertelorism Low-set ears Multiple facial nevi | 6 | 3.36 |
Covariate | Coefficient [95 Cl] | p Value |
---|---|---|
Facial recognition intensity (FRI) | 0.4939 [0.0710,0.9169] | 0.022 |
Sample size of the training set | 0.0004 [−0.0006,0.0014] | 0.467 |
Sensitivity | Specificity | OR | ln(OR) | FRI |
---|---|---|---|---|
85% | 85% | 32.11 | 3.47 | 4.05 |
90% | 85% | 51.00 | 3.93 | 4.98 |
90% | 90% | 81.00 | 4.39 | 5.92 |
95% | 90% | 171.00 | 5.14 | 7.42 |
95% | 95% | 361.00 | 5.89 | 8.93 |
FRI | Minimum Sample Size of Training Set | Range of Sample Size of Training Set | Range of Accuracies | AI Models | Range of Accuracies | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sensitivities | Specificities | Sensitivities | Specificities | ||||
>8 | 30 | <100 | 0.967 (0.960~0.973) | 0.967 (0.960~0.973) | Non-DL | 0.973 (0.960~0.977) | 0.962 (0.960~0.973) |
100~200 | 0.977 | 0.962 | |||||
6~8 | 49 | <100 | 0.710 | 1.000 | Non-DL DL | 0.810 (0.719~0.901) 0.860 (0.800~0.960) | 0.972 (0.944~1.000) 1.000 (0.890~1.000) |
100~1000 | 0.790 (0.719~0.860) | 0.903 (0.890~0.915) | |||||
>1000 | 0.901 (0.800~0.960) | 1.000 (0.944~1.000) | |||||
<6 | 60 | <100 | 0.769 (0.688~0.850) | 0.913 (0.875~0.950) | Non-DL | 0.688 | 0.875 |
100~1000 | 0.714 (0.537~0.890) | 0.697 (0.690~0.704) | DL | 0.929 (0.890~0.967) | 0.830 (0.690~0.970) | ||
>1000 | 0.967 | 0.970 |
Subgroup Variables | Numbers of Eligible Studies | Sensitivity, % [95 Cl] | Specificity, % [95 Cl] | p for Interaction |
---|---|---|---|---|
Image resolution | 0.415 | |||
<30,000 pixels | 7 | 0.85 [0.73–0.97] | 0.90 [0.82–0.98] | |
≥30,000 pixels | 7 | 0.90 [0.82–0.98] | 0.94 [0.89–0.98] | |
Sample size of training set | 0.145 | |||
<1000 | 14 | 0.87 [0.80–0.93] | 0.89 [0.84–0.95] | |
≥1000 | 6 | 0.92 [0.86–0.99] | 0.97 [0.93–1.00] | |
Model/system of AI | 0.802 | |||
Neural network | 7 | 0.91 [0.83–0.99] | 0.93 [0.85–1.00] | |
Non-neural network | 8 | 0.92 [0.86–0.97] | 0.92 [0.86–0.98] | |
Number of diseases | 0.930 | |||
1 | 16 | 0.90 [0.86–0.95] | 0.78 [0.60–0.97] | |
>1 | 4 | 0.93 [0.89–0.97] | 0.88 [0.74–1.00] | |
Selection of control group | 0.573 | |||
Healthy | 9 | 0.85 [0.75–0.95] | 0.94 [0.89–0.99] | |
Other diseases | 11 | 0.90 [0.84–0.96] | 0.91 [0.86–0.97] | |
Facial recognition intensity (FRI) | 0.003 | |||
≤6 | 7 | 0.81 [0.71–0.90] | 0.90 [0.83–0.96] | |
>6 | 9 | 0.95 [0.92–0.98] | 0.95 [0.91–0.98] |
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Wu, D.; Chen, S.; Zhang, Y.; Zhang, H.; Wang, Q.; Li, J.; Fu, Y.; Wang, S.; Yang, H.; Du, H.; et al. Facial Recognition Intensity in Disease Diagnosis Using Automatic Facial Recognition. J. Pers. Med. 2021, 11, 1172. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm11111172
Wu D, Chen S, Zhang Y, Zhang H, Wang Q, Li J, Fu Y, Wang S, Yang H, Du H, et al. Facial Recognition Intensity in Disease Diagnosis Using Automatic Facial Recognition. Journal of Personalized Medicine. 2021; 11(11):1172. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm11111172
Chicago/Turabian StyleWu, Danning, Shi Chen, Yuelun Zhang, Huabing Zhang, Qing Wang, Jianqiang Li, Yibo Fu, Shirui Wang, Hongbo Yang, Hanze Du, and et al. 2021. "Facial Recognition Intensity in Disease Diagnosis Using Automatic Facial Recognition" Journal of Personalized Medicine 11, no. 11: 1172. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm11111172