Next Article in Journal
Prognosis Prediction in COVID-19 Patients through Deep Feature Space Reasoning
Previous Article in Journal
Pilot Study for the Assessment of the Best Radiomic Features for Bosniak Cyst Classification Using Phantom and Radiologist Inter-Observer Selection
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Diagnostics
Volume 13
Issue 8
10.3390/diagnostics13081386
diagnostics-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Osteoarthritis and Diabetes: Where Are We and Where Should We Go?

by
Aqeel M. Alenazi
1,*,
Ahmed S. Alhowimel
1,
Mohammed M. Alshehri
2,
Bader A. Alqahtani
1,
Norah A. Alhwoaimel
1,
Neil A. Segal
3 and
Patricia M. Kluding
4
1
Department of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Alkharj 11942, Saudi Arabia
2
Departement of Physical Therapy, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
3
Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, MI 66160, USA
4
Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, MI 66160, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Diagnostics 2023, 13(8), 1386; https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics13081386
Submission received: 7 February 2023 / Revised: 23 March 2023 / Accepted: 27 March 2023 / Published: 10 April 2023
(This article belongs to the Section Pathology and Molecular Diagnostics)
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Diabetes mellitus (DM) and osteoarthritis (OA) are chronic noncommunicable diseases that affect millions of people worldwide. OA and DM are prevalent worldwide and associated with chronic pain and disability. Evidence suggests that DM and OA coexist within the same population. The coexistence of DM in patients with OA has been linked to the development and progression of the disease. Furthermore, DM is associated with a greater degree of osteoarthritic pain. Numerous risk factors are common to both DM and OA. Age, sex, race, and metabolic diseases (e.g., obesity, hypertension, and dyslipidemia) have been identified as risk factors. These risk factors (demographics and metabolic disorder) are associated with DM or OA. Other possible factors may include sleep disorders and depression. Medications for metabolic syndromes might be related to the incidence and progression of OA, with conflicting results. Given the growing body of evidence indicating a relationship between DM and OA, it is vital to analyze, interpret, and integrate these findings. Therefore, the purpose of this review was to evaluate the evidence on the prevalence, relationship, pain, and risk factors of both DM and OA. The research was limited to knee, hip, and hand OA.

1. Introduction

Osteoarthritis is one of the most common chronic joint-affecting diseases. OA affects approximately 16% of the global population [1], and 26 million individuals in the United States are estimated to have OA, with the average annual cost per patient exceeding USD 2000 [2,3,4,5]. The prevalence of OA is known to increase with age, and approximately 34% of adults aged >65 years have OA [6]. OA is characterized by loss of cartilage, osteophyte formation, and synovial inflammation and the most common sites include the knee, hip, hands, and spine. Pain is the most common symptom requiring treatment. Pain severity may be influenced by many factors such as age, sex, obesity, and other comorbidities, such as DM.
Osteoarthritis can be classified based on the number of joints involved and their locations: generalized OA (GOA) affects three or more joints [7], while localized OA affects fewer than three joints [7,8]. Individuals with GOA may present with worse symptoms or poorer outcomes in terms of pain, functional impairment, and decreased quality of life. Previous evidence has shown that patients with total knee replacement and OA of multiple joints have worse pain and impaired physical function [9]. GOA affects joint replacement outcomes, quality of life, and functionality to a greater extent than localized OA [10]. Patients with GOA may have severe impairments during daily activities, that could negatively affect their self-care and basic independence [10]. Further research is needed regarding GOA in terms of prevalence, sites, and related risk factors.
Globally, DM is one component of metabolic syndrome. DM affects approximately 11% of the general population and can lead to several complications [11]. The number of people with DM is estimated to rise to approximately 592 million globally by 2035 [12]. In the United States, more than 20 million people have DM, with a total annual cost exceeding USD 245 billion [13]. Direct out-of-pocket cost estimations range between USD 242 in Mexico to USD 11,917 in the United States [14]. A common complication of DM is hyperglycemia, which may affect joints and bones. Future research is needed in the area of cost estimation in the presence of DM and OA.
Diabetes is characterized by a disturbance in the insulin machinery that leads to hyperglycemia, which may induce chronic systemic inflammation that leads to systemic changes in the body organs and joints, and often leads to other complications [15]. Additionally, hyperglycemia can produce advanced glycation end products (AGE) that can accumulate in any part of the body, including the joints, and may increase cartilage stiffness and bone fragility [16].
The progression rate of DM differs depending on the associated risk factors such as demographics, presence of other chronic diseases, and poor glycemic control. Recent guidelines suggest that early treatment of DM and good glycemic control may slow DM progression [17]. In a previous study, sex and age played a significant role in poorer glycemic control, as measured by HbA1c ≥ 7; poorer glycemic control was noted in individuals who were of younger age and found to be more common in females [18]. Moreover, in the same study, other factors for poor glycemic control were also identified, including poor medication adherence, poor lifestyle modifications, and longer DM duration. Higher body mass index (BMI) and other comorbidities, such as dyslipidemia and vascular complications, were insignificant in the multivariable analyses. Additionally, another large study found that younger age was consistently associated with poor glycemic control (HbA1c ≥ 7) in patients with untreated DM [19]. Furthermore, DM can present with other comorbidities such as osteoarthritis and may result in other complications such as pain.
Diabetes mellitus (DM) and osteoarthritis (OA) are common chronic diseases that have various complications, including hyperglycemia and pain. These conditions coexist due the shared risk factors such as obesity and aging [20,21,22]. The global prevalence of OA and DM has significantly increased, respectively affecting approximately 16% and 11% of the general population [1,4,11,23]. Recent evidence has indicated an association between DM and OA [24,25]. The impact of DM was not only evident in the presence of OA, but also had a negative impact on pain and functionality in people with OA. Additionally, evidence has further shown that DM is associated with increased pain severity and decreased walking speed in patients with knee OA [26,27,28,29,30,31,32].
According to previous studies, the following shared risk factors are associated with DM and OA: demographic factors such as age, sex, and race; and metabolic syndromes such as obesity, hypertension, and dyslipidemia [20,21,22,33]. Although previous work has linked DM to OA [24], this was attributed to obesity in people with DM [34]. Previous systematic reviews and meta-analyses showed inconsistent results regarding the association between DM and OA [24,25,34,35]. Some studies included type 2 DM (T2DM) and specific joints such as knee and hand OA. Other narrative reviews have looked at the association between metabolic syndrome and OA [16,36,37,38,39,40]. Previous reviews were limited to specific joints for OA and specific forms of DM such as T2DM and did not investigate the impact of DM on symptoms and physical function among people with OA. Since DM and OA are systemic diseases with low-grade inflammation, it is crucial to look at possible joints that might be affected other than knees or hands. OA can affect knee, hip, hand, ankle, shoulder, elbow, back, and other joints. These joints were not clearly included in previous studies regarding the association of OA and DM.
With a growing body of evidence reviewed supporting the association between DM and OA [36,37,38,41,42], to gain greater insight, it is important to review and evaluate the pertaining literature and summarize the findings on this topic. Therefore, the purpose of our review was to evaluate and review the literature on the association between DM and OA in terms of prevalence, association, symptoms, physical function, and shared risk factors.

2. Methods

All the reviewed articles were identified through an online search using PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Cochrane library, and Google Scholar. Keywords included “diabetes” and “osteoarthritis”. The search was limited to full-length articles of studies on humans, published in English from inception until July All search strategies for the used databases were found in Supplementary Material (Tables S1–S4).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Association between Osteoarthritis and DM

Possible mechanisms for the association between OA DM and OA have been proposed in previous reports [36,38]. The potential pathophysiology for OA is related to local and systemic low-grade inflammation [43]. The joints include the articular cartilage involving extracellular matrix that includes chondrocytes. These cells are responsible for extracellular matrix synthesis [16,37,43]. The main function of cartilage is stress and shock absorbent between the surfaces of two bones. OA indicates abnormality of these functions and a production of pro-inflammatory mediators by chondrocytes such as cytokines, tumor necrosis factors, radical oxygen species, advanced glycation end products (AGE), and prostaglandins. All of these inflammatory mediators induce an increase in proteolytic enzymes called matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and aggrecanases. These enzymes lead to destruction of the cartilage matrix. The presence of DM in OA status might facilitate the process joint damage through two pathways. The first pathway is via chronic hyperglycemia leading to an increase in oxidative stress and overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines as well as AGEs within joints. The second pathway is through insulin resistance that might have a negative impact locally and systemically through low-grade inflammation. Chondrocyte damage and apoptosis might be induced due to leptin secretion from adipose tissue leading to the increased production of cytokine and MMPs [16,37,43].
Numerous studies have investigated the association between DM and OA. Two meta-analyses found a significant association [24,25]. One, a large meta-analysis conducted by Louati et al. [24], that included 49 studies (study designs included cross-sectional, case–control, and cohort studies), showed that the prevalence of OA among 5788 patients with DM was 29.5% and the prevalence of DM among 645,089 patients with OA was 14.4%. This meta-analysis further revealed that the risk of OA was significantly associated with DM compared to the non-DM population, with an odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence interval (95% CI) (OR: 1.46, 95% CI [1.08 to 1.96]. Additionally, it found that the risk of DM was significantly associated with OA compared to that in the non-OA population (OR = 1.41, 95% CI [1.21 to 1.65]). However, several studies included in this meta-analysis had limitations, including joint replacement as the main outcome and lack of control for other risk factors such as age, sex, obesity, and heterogeneous OA and DM definitions. The other meta-analysis published by Williams et al. [25] found similar results with fewer included studies (n = 10). This meta-analysis included studies that examined the association between OA and DM, even after controlling for BMI, in a smaller population (n =16,742 patients). The main outcome was the presence or progression of OA with DM as an independent factor. This meta-analysis by Williams found a significant association between OA and the presence of DM (OR = 1.21, 95% CI [1.02 to 1.41]), which remained significant after controlling for BMI. However, it also had limitations, including self-reported DM and joint replacement as the main outcomes in some included studies.
Conversely, another meta-analysis found that the association between DM and OA was confounded by BMI [34]. This meta-analysis included 31 articles, with a pooled sample size of 295,100 individuals, and examined the bidirectional association between DM and OA, indicating that the risk of DM was higher in people with OA than in those without OA (OR:1.56, 95% CI [1.28 to 1.89]). However, the risk of OA was insignificant in people with DM compared to those without DM (OR:1.14, 95% CI [0.98 to 1,33]). The bidirectional relationship might be related to both diseases having similar features such as systemic inflammation and pro-inflammatory mediators. Regardless of the conflicting evidence between these meta-analyses, the cost of coexisting conditions could increase, especially among older adults. Recent evidence showed that the median out-of-pocket cost for common comorbidities, including DM and OA, was USD 1999 in 2019 [3]. Future systematic reviews may highlight the association between DM and OA in relation to specific joints and uniform definitions for DM and OA.
According to one study, the prevalence of OA was estimated to be 52% in individuals with DM, compared to 27% in those without DM [44]. Numerous studies have reported a high prevalence of DM in OA populations and vice versa [45,46,47]. In a large population study (n = 9541), Kim et al. reported that the prevalence of knee OA was 42.4% in patients with DM, compared to 35.4% in those without DM [46]. Another small study (n = 202) showed that the prevalence of OA among people with DM was 49% compared to 26.5% among those without DM [45]. While a larger population-based study (n = 7714) reported that the prevalence of hyperglycemia was 30% in people with OA compared with 13% in those without OA [47]. These previous studies have focused on specific joint locations, such as knee joints [45,46], hands [45], or unspecified OA joints [47]. Therefore, other factors, such as BMI for weight-bearing joints, should be considered in future research analyses. Further work is needed regarding weight-bearing and non-weight-bearing OA and DM.
Numerous reports have examined the association between DM and OA with inconsistent results within and between studies. This discrepancy might be related to mediating factors for DM and OA such as age, BMI, and sex. A previous cross-sectional study (n = 202) [45] showed that people with DM had 2.18 odds of having knee or hand OA compared to those without DM after adjusting for age, sex, obesity, and other risk factors (OR = 2.18, 95% CI [1.12 to 4.24]). However, this study had limitations, such as the inclusion of only Hispanic people, a small sample size, and reliance on self-reported DM. Similarly, another study found a significant association between knee OA and DM (OR = 1.19, 95% CI [1.00 to 1.41]), which was a large cross-sectional study (n = 9514) of Koreans [46], even after controlling for age and sex. However, after further controlling for other factors such as BMI, the association became insignificant [46]. A potential reason for this insignificant association is that DM can be categorized as either prediabetes or DM since previous meta-analysis found no association between prediabetes and OA, indicating that mild hyperglycemia might not be associated with an increased risk of OA [40]. Another possible explanation is the mediation effect of obesity on DM and OA as a shared risk factor. In a large population-based study (n = 7714) conducted by Puenpatom et al., the association between metabolic syndrome and OA was stronger in younger participants (mean age = 43 years) [47]. However, this study did not specify which joints were affected by OA and OA types (primary or secondary). A recent cross-sectional study from China with a large sample size (n = 5764) found that hyperglycemia was associated with knee OA (OR = 1.36, 95% CI [1.18 to 1.57]) in an unadjusted analysis [48]. However, this association was not observed in the age- and sex-adjusted models. Since DM and OA are affected by age, future research should focus on younger adults to better understand the relationship.
In contrast to the previous studies discussed, a recent systematic review of 40 studies examined the association between DM and OA of the knee, hip, and hand separately [35]. This review concluded that little evidence suggests an association between DM and knee OA independent of obesity, and no evidence suggests an association between DM and hip or hand OA [35]. Consistent with this systematic review, a large case–control study (n = 13,500 cases; n = 13,500 matched controls) by Frey et al. reported that DM was not associated with hand OA, even after adjustments for age, sex, and BMI [49]. Although this study included a control group, it had some limitations. The type of hand OA or joints affected within the hand were not specified. This study used only one diagnostic code to define DM and hand OA, which may have affected accuracy, while other research used two codes to improve validity. Consistent findings from Japan (n = 119 women) showed that DM was not associated with knee OA [50]. However, the participants were only women who underwent knee joint surgery, indicating end-stage knee OA. However, the surgical decision might be affected by the presence of DM. Collectively, the common limitations in these studies are the focus on localized OA in specific joints, such as the knee or hand, and the cross-sectional designs.
Only a few longitudinal studies have been conducted to examine the association between DM and OA, with contradictory results. A previous study with a 12-year mean follow-up (n = 19,089 cases with OA.; n = 19,089 controls) examined the incidence of DM in patients with OA compared to those without, and found that OA was a significant risk factor for DM incidence, except for older men (>65 years), after adjusting for covariates, including obesity [51]. The OA locations and type (primary or secondary) were not specified. Another study (n = 927) examined the association between DM and total hip or knee replacement over a 20-year follow-up and found a significant association between DM and hip or knee replacement, after adjusting for age, sex, obesity, and other confounders [29]. This study defined OA as a total hip or knee replacement and might not be representative for the overall OA population. A previous longitudinal study (n = 1690) with a three-year follow-up showed an association between knee OA occurrence and DM after adjusting for confounders such as age, sex, and BMI [52]. Another large longitudinal study with a 13.5-year mean follow-up (n = 16,362) examined the incidence of DM among people with OA, concluding that knee and hip OA were significant predictors of DM incidents after adjusting for covariates such as age, sex, and BMI [53]. This study did not measure changes in other factors over time. In contrast to the previous study findings and concepts, a recent report (n = 987) examined whether DM at baseline was a predictor for radiographic knee OA over a 7-year follow-up period, and found that baseline DM was not associated with incidence of radiographic knee OA, after adjusting for confounders, including BMI [54]. However, the homeostasis model of assessment level was negatively associated with incident knee OA in women only (OR = 0.80, 95% CI [0.69 to 0.94]). Previous reports had different sample sizes, methodologies, and definitions of OA and DM. Future research should examine the longitudinal relationship between DM and OA using objective measures such as glucose level for DM and X-ray and joint symptoms for OA.

3.2. Progression of Osteoarthritis and Diabetes

Treatment options for OA are mainly focused on decreasing symptoms and preventing or slowing disease progression; however, DM may facilitate OA progression. Previous evidence has shown DM to be an independent risk for OA progression in addition to negative outcomes and complications following joint replacement surgery [29,52,55,56,57,58]. Schett et al. [29] evaluated arthroplasty rates among 927 patients over a 20-year follow-up. They concluded that DM was an independent risk factor for hip and knee joint replacements. Another study (n = 559) examined the progression of knee OA and found that DM was an independent risk factor for knee joint space narrowing, over 3 years, compared with patients without DM [55]. Another report (n = 1690), with a 3-year follow-up, showed that DM was associated with knee OA progression [52]. However, after further adjustment for BMI, this association was no longer observed. Another large-scale study by Nielen et al. (n = 94,609) found that severity of OA requiring surgery was negatively associated with increased DM severity. However, DM severity affects surgical decisions in patients with OA. The previously mentioned studies regarding DM and OA progression were predominantly focused on knee or hip OA. Moreover, OA progression has previously been linked to excessive weight-bearing stress on the joints, which could facilitate disease progression. A high mechanical load on weight-bearing joints, such as the knee or hip, may cause cartilage damage and misalignment, which may contribute to OA progression [59,60,61]. However, these studies did not examine non-weight-bearing joints. Regardless of mechanical stress, previous research found an association between OA in non-weight-bearing joints and obesity, which may suggest a systemic pathway [45,62]. The prevalence of DM in weight-bearing versus non-weight-bearing joint OA is of interest to better understand this relationship.

3.3. Pain and Physical Function in Osteoarthritis and Diabetes

Pain is a common symptom in patients with OA, and may be affected by DM. Pain can be categorized as nociceptive or neuropathic in people with OA [63]. Nociceptive pain occurs due to painful stimuli resulting from inflammation in the synovium and subchondral bone and is usually characterized by a sharp and/or dull aching pain. Neuropathic pain occurs due to nerve pathology and is usually described as burning, tingling, and/or numbness. For both types of pain, pain severity plays a significant role in choosing the appropriate treatment, including pharmacological intervention such as pain medications and non-pharmacological interventions such as physical therapy for pain relief. However, limited research has examined the impact of DM in the different pain categories in individuals with OA.
Numerous studies have examined the impact of DM on pain severity in people with OA. Table 1 summarizes the studies that have examined the association between DM and OA in terms of pain. Recent evidence has shown that DM is associated with increased pain severity in patients with OA [27,28,29,30,31,50,64,65,66,67,68,69,70]. A previous study (n = 927) found that DM was associated with more severe clinical symptoms, including pain, in patients with hip or knee OA [29]. This study included patients who underwent hip or knee arthroplasty and may have had end-stage OA. A different study (n = 70) concluded that patients with DM had higher pain severity in knee OA than patients without DM [27]. Moreover, this study found that the levels of inflammatory markers such as interlukin-6 and synovitis were higher in patients with DM and knee OA than in patients with only knee OA. These values were significantly associated with pain severity [27]. This study included patients who underwent arthroplasty, with a small sample size. Another work by Eitner et al., using data from the Osteoarthritis Initiative, showed that DM was associated with a worse numeric rating scale for pain and worse knee injury and osteoarthritis outcome score for pain after controlling for age, sex, BMI, and OA severity [65]. Consistent with these previous reports, Abourazzak et al. reported that DM (n = 130) was associated with higher pain severity in women with knee OA [28]. Additionally, another study (n = 119 women) showed that elevated blood glucose levels were associated with the severity of symptomatic knee OA [50]. This study included only women who were scheduled for knee joint surgery. A study conducted on 70 patients with knee OA and 81 controls found that DM was associated with higher pain severity in people with knee OA [64]. A longitudinal report by Scherzer et al. (n = 845) from the Johnston County Osteoarthritis Project found that DM was associated with worsening hand OA pain [67]. The majority of the studies mentioned above had the following limitations: lack of controlling for covariates, such as medications used for pain and DM.; being focused on pain at rest without examining pain during activities, as it might be a strong barrier for activities; and some studies included only a specific sex (females) in the sample. Future research is needed to examine the association between DM duration, glycemic control, and pain symptoms using different pain measures including subjective (i.e., self-reported) and objective pain testing.
Our recent evidence examined the association between DM and pain in individuals with DM after controlling for possible confounders, including medications. This study reported a significant association between DM and pain in patients with OA (n = 819) after controlling for pain and metabolic syndrome medications [66]. This study revealed that DM was significantly associated with increased pain severity in people with OA after adjusting for covariates including age, sex, OA locations, BMI, depression, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and medication usage (pain medications including opioids, non-opioids, and benzodiazepine; anti-diabetic; antihypertensive; antilipemic; and anti-depressants) within 90 days of the index date. Limitations in this study included the retrospective design and using diagnostic codes that might have influenced the results since misclassification bias is common in clinical settings. To improve accuracy, use of a second confirmatory code is recommended.
Pain during activities in people with DM and knee OA was studied in our recent work. We specifically investigated and evaluated the pain while walking in patients with knee OA and DM (n = 1790) [31]. Our study showed that DM was significantly associated with moderate and severe pain while walking compared to no DM and no pain while walking, after controlling for age, sex, BMI, depression symptoms, and OA grade. This work has some limitations such as the key factor (DM) being self-reported without specifying type 1 or type 2, and the duration of DM was not recorded. More research is needed to investigate the impact of DM and its duration and measurement (i.e., glycemic control using A1c) on different pain symptoms during activities.
The literature on DM’s impact on physical function (i.e., walking speed) is very limited. Our previous report examined the association between arthritis and DM and walking speed in the general population (n = 1255). This study found that the presence of combined arthritis and DM was associated with decreased walking speed (β = −0.11, 95% CI [−0.17, −0.6], p < 0.001). Another report examining the impact of DM on walking speed in people with knee OA showed similar findings (n = 1790) [31,72]. This study revealed that DM was significantly associated with decreased walking speed (B = −0.064; 95% CI = −0.09, −0.03) after controlling for age, sex, knee pain while walking, BMI, depressive symptoms, and OA grade. Previous work by Kendzerska et al., using a longitudinal design (n = 16,362) with an average of 13.5 years of follow-up, found that the number of hip/knees with OA was associated with DM incidence, and this relationship was explained by the presence of walking difficulty [53]. Although this study used a longitudinal design controlling for possible covariates such as age, sex, and BMI, walking difficulty was not quantified and it was based on a self-report. Therefore, our recent study (n = 4313) examined the incidence of DM among people with, or at risk of, knee OA using baseline walking speed as a predictor [73,74]. This report found a 7% cumulative incidence of DM over a 96-month follow-up period. Reduced walking speed was a predictor of incident DM (RR, 0.44; 95% CI [0.22 to 0.86] p = 0.018) in people with, or at risk of, knee OA. This study identified the threshold for baseline walking speed at 1.32 m/s with an area under the curve of 0.59 (p < 0.001), which significantly predicted DM incidence. Past research compared muscle strength in people with DM and knee OA to those with knee OA only [75]. This study found that people with DM and knee OA had lower grip strength and balance compared to those with knee OA only [75]. More work is needed regarding the impact of DM on physical functions such as gait speed, balance/mobility functions, and muscle strength in people with OA in different joints such as weight-bearing and non-weight-bearing joints.

3.4. Shared Risk Factors for Osteoarthritis and Diabetes

Common risk factors associated with DM and OA are shown in Table 2 including demographic factors (age, sex, and race) and metabolic syndrome (obesity, hypertension, and dyslipidemia). Previous research found that these risk factors (demographic and metabolic syndrome) were associated with either DM or OA [20,21,22,33]. In addition to these risk factors, other factors, including medications, have been considered risk factors for either DM or OA. Recent evidence suggests that metabolic syndromes and their medications may affect the incidence and prevalence of OA [37]. Recent evidence has shown that antilipemic or antihypertensive medications are associated with decreased knee OA progression and pain [76]. Our previous research on people with OA (n = 3855) found that chronic diseases were associated with generalized OA compared with localized OA [22]. This study reported that the odds of generalized OA increased in people with DM (OR: 1.37, 95% CI: 1.05 to 1.78, p = 0.02), hypertension (OR: 1.99, CI: 1.63 to 2.43, p < 0.001), and dyslipidemia (OR: 3.46, CI: 2.86 to 4.19, p < 0.001). Demographics, including older age, female sex, race, and BMI, were associated with generalized OA compared to localized OA.

3.4.1. The Role of Age in DM and OA

Aging has a detrimental impact on different systems and organs because advanced age is associated with the decline in cellular function, that has been linked to both OA and DM [20,21,33]. Aging is a common risk factor for both OA and DM, and increased age is associated with disease development and progression. OA is associated with aging owing to a cellular decline in joints, such as chondrocytes, resulting in cartilage degradation [78]. DM is prevalent in older patients because pancreatic cell decline increases with age [77]. Age is usually controlled for during analysis investigating the association between DM and OA. However, future reports should shed light on age as one of the associated risk factors and whether age differs in people with DM, OA, or both.

3.4.2. The Role of Sex in DM and OA

The prevalence of OA is greater in women, but previous studies have usually controlled for sex in the analyses. Previous research has suggested that women have a higher prevalence of hip and knee OA than men [79,80]. A meta-analysis showed differences in the prevalence and incidence of OA based on sex, and the analysis revealed that women have an especially higher risk after menopause [90]. Conversely, a recent study reported no association between hand OA and sex [49]. Sex differences in OA prevalence might be attributed to hormonal changes in women after menopause, which could partially explain this association [91,92]. Sex influences gait parameters and muscle mass leading to differences in gait variability and joint motion [93].
The global prevalence of DM is similar among men and women, but women have a higher prevalence of DM than men at older ages [81]. However, the age-adjusted rate for DM in the United States was 6.6 for men and 5.9 for women in 2014 [94]. As most studies on OA and DM are controlled for age and sex, there is a critical need to evaluate this relationship in future work and to analyze the results based on sex and as a whole sample.

3.4.3. The Role of Race in DM and OA

Race is a common risk factor for both DM and OA. Previous research has reported an association between non-Hispanic African Americans and OA using a national health survey in the United States [95,96]. A similar association was observed between race and DM. A previous report showed a higher prevalence of DM among non-Hispanic African Americans compared to Hispanic Americans [97]. However, previous evidence on the association between OA and DM has not examined racial differences within both conditions because of adjusting for race. Because OA and DM are independently associated with race, future research on the association between these diseases should consider race as a potential factor.

3.4.4. The Role of Obesity in DM and OA

Obesity is a shared risk factor in OA and DM, and is associated with 90% of DM [83] and OA [82]. Obesity is a systemic metabolic disease that affects body organs and joints. Impaired glucose tolerance is associated with obesity and related metabolic syndromes [98]. Obesity is typically defined as excessive body weight using many formulas, such as the body mass index (BMI). Obese people have a BMI ≥ 30, and overweight people have a BMI ≥ Recent studies have shown that obesity is a significant risk factor for knee OA after controlling for covariates, such as metabolic syndromes [46,99].
Obesity might be linked to OA, owing to the effect of weight and misalignment on joints, especially weight-bearing joints that affect joint cartilage [60,61,82]. Furthermore, previous studies have reported that obesity is associated with non-weight-bearing joints such as hand OA [52,100], suggesting that obesity might be associated with systemic metabolic dysfunction rather than mechanical dysfunction [62]. Previous research has shown an association between DM and hand OA, indicating an impact other than mechanical on lower extremities due to obesity/overweight [101]. DM was also linked to pain in erosive hand OA in either type 1 or type 2, indicating low-grade inflammation related to metabolic syndrome [71,101]. Possible mechanisms are related to oxidative stress and insulin resistance. Therefore, to better understand the relationship between obesity and OA, and obesity and DM, it is necessary to study this association in terms of weight-bearing versus non-weight-bearing joints.

3.4.5. The Role of Hypertension in DM and OA

Elevated blood pressure is a common form of cardiovascular disease associated with both OA and DM. The relationship between hypertension, OA, and DM has been studied as a risk factor for OA development and progression. Prior research demonstrated that the accumulation of metabolic factors, including hypertension and DM, was associated with knee OA occurrence over a three-year period after controlling for other covariates [52]. Previous studies have also reported that hypertension is significantly associated with knee OA after controlling for covariates including BMI [46,48,102,103].
The proposed mechanism of hypertension as a risk factor for OA development was previously reported by Findlay [104]. Vascular impairment due to hypertension may play a role in OA development and progression. Decreased blood flow with hypertension causes subchondral ischemia, which is associated with cellular dysfunction in the joints, including osteocytes and articular cartilage [104]. The previously mentioned studies shared the common limitation of examining knee OA only. The presence of DM and OA, as well as other metabolic risk factors, including hypertension, needs further research because these metabolic syndromes are systemic diseases and may contribute to further complications.

3.4.6. The Role of Dyslipidemia in DM and OA

Dyslipidemia is a form of metabolic disorder, and evidence regarding its association with DM and OA is limited owing to a lack of research. Dyslipidemia indicates disturbances in the serum levels of any form of cholesterol, including high-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein, total cholesterol, or triglyceride. Prior evidence has shown that dyslipidemia is associated with knee OA after controlling for other covariates such as BMI [46,99,105]. This association might be explained by the impact of lipid profile on joint properties and increased free fatty acid. Although previous studies have demonstrated an association between dyslipidemia, DM, and OA occurrence [52,106,107], other studies have conversely reported no association between them [49,108]. These studies have focused on non-weight-bearing OA joints with different definitions of dyslipidemia, thus contributing to the conflicting results.

3.4.7. The Role of Medications in DM and OA

Medications for chronic diseases may play a role in the development and progression of OA. Medications including anti-diabetic, antilipemic, and antihypertensive drugs might be associated with OA [76,109,110,111]. A previous report found that the incidence and prevalence of OA might be affected by metabolic syndromes and their medications [37]. Recent research has demonstrated that the use of medications such as antilipemic or antihypertensives is associated with decreased knee OA progression and symptoms [76]. Additionally, one study found that individuals with DM using insulin had less osteophyte formation compared to individuals with DM who were not using insulin [109]. This could be explained by an increased synthesis of proteoglycan leading to an increased matrix synthesis and decreasing matrix breakdown [109]. Since matrix breakdown is an early and destructive feature of OA, it results in osteophyte formation and cartilage loss. Furthermore, statin use has been associated with a decreased incidence and progression of knee OA [111]. Another longitudinal study over a 10-year follow-up showed that using a high dose of statins was associated with a reduction in clinically defined OA (e.g., pain) [112]. This might be attributed to altering serum lipid levels or anti-inflammatory properties by statins [111,112]. In contrast, another study found that statin users were at an increased risk of knee OA progression compared with non-statin users [110]. These conflicting findings could be related to differences in the definitions of OA (e.g., diagnostic codes versus radiographic OA), OA location, and statin dosage. Further research is required in the context of metabolic syndrome medications and OA. A recent study extensively reviewed medication use and their association with DM and OA [38]. The authors concluded that more careful consideration is required during therapy selection for people with DM and OA to avoid safety issues [38].
Only a few studies have controlled for pain medications in the context of DM and OA association. A recent retrospective study [66] (n = 3855), after controlling for medication usage (pain medications including opioids, non-opioids, and benzodiazepine; anti-diabetic; antihypertensives; antilipemic; antidepressants), found that DM was significantly associated with worsening pain. Another report found that DM was associated with higher pain intensity over 7 and 30 days after controlling for covariates, including pain medications [30]. Future research should control for possible confounders that may affect pain in patients with OA and DM.

3.4.8. Other Risk Factors

Numerous risk factors, including sleep disorders and depression, may contribute to the development of OA in individuals with DM. Hyperglycemia and OA pain are common concerns in individuals with DM and OA because glycemic control by exercise is limited, owing to pain, sleep disorders, or depression. Limited evidence has linked sleep disorders and depression to either DM [86,87] or OA [88,89]. Other factors, such as joint arthroplasty, may also have an important association with DM and OA. Evidence from our previous study found that hyperglycemia, measured by an increase in A1c, was associated with increased pain severity in people with localized OA [66]. These factors should be considered in future studies to examine the association between OA and DM.

3.5. Future Directions

Future studies should focus on the association between DM and OA in different forms including localized and generalized forms of OA and different locations including weight-bearing and non-weight-bearing joints. Further research should examine the association between DM and OA using objective measures including blood glucose measures and A1c of DM as well as grading of OA using X-ray and clinical symptoms, and the extent to which they are associated. Disease duration and other comorbidities should be examined further, along with their relationship to physical function and pain. The different components and dimensions of pain, such as severity and frequency, should be addressed. It is important to examine the association between DM and OA in terms of weight-bearing versus non-weight-bearing joints. Furthermore, medications should be considered in future research because previous evidence has shown conflicting results regarding their impact on either DM or OA. Finally, the possible mechanisms underlying the association between DM and OA should be studied further in future research.

4. Conclusions

According to the literature reviewed, DM and OA coexist and are associated with incidence and progression increasing clinical evidence for the relationship. However, some studies have suggested an insignificant association after controlling for risk factors such as age, sex, and BMI. We found that DM may increase the pain severity of knee OA.; however, limited evidence prevents us from drawing a definite conclusion. Further studies are therefore needed to elucidate whether DM increases the pain severity of OA. Moreover, we identified that common risk factors, including demographics and metabolic syndromes, may affect the association between DM and OA.; however, this too requires further research. Regarding other factors, there is conflicting evidence on whether using medication contributes positively or negatively to the association between DM and OA, and thus, extensive future research is needed to clearly ascertain the role of chronic medication use.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/diagnostics13081386/s1, Table S1: Pubmed; Table S2: Scopus; Table S3: Web of Science; Table S4: Cochrane library.

Author Contributions

A.M.A. contributed to conceptualizing the study and the design, drafting the manuscript, and interpreting the data. A.S.A., M.M.A., B.A.A., N.A.S., N.A.A. and P.M.K. contributed to the design and conception of the study and interpretation of the data. All authors contributed substantially to reviewing the manuscript before submission. All authors critically evaluated and revised the manuscript and approved the version submitted. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was supported by the Deputyship for Research and Innovation, Ministry of Education through the project number IF-PSAU-2021/03/18577.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

All authors thank Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Alkharj, Saudi Arabia. The authors extend their appreciation to the Deputyship for Research and Innovation, Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia for funding this research through project number IF-PSAU-2021/03/18577.

Conflicts of Interest

All authors declare they have no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Cui, A.; Li, H.; Wang, D.; Zhong, J.; Chen, Y.; Lu, H. Global, regional prevalence, incidence and risk factors of knee osteoarthritis in population-based studies. EClinicalMedicine 2020, 29–30, 100587. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Gabriel, S.E.; Crowson, C.S.; Campion, M.E.; O’Fallon, W.M. Direct medical costs unique to people with arthritis. J. Rheumatol. 1997, 24, 719–725. [Google Scholar]
  3. Zhou, T.; Liu, P.; Dhruva, S.S.; Shah, N.D.; Ramachandran, R.; Berg, K.M.; Ross, J.S. Assessment of Hypothetical Out-of-Pocket Costs of Guideline-Recommended Medications for the Treatment of Older Adults With Multiple Chronic Conditions, 2009 and 2019. JAMA Intern. Med. 2022, 182, 185. [Google Scholar]
  4. Litwic, A.; Edwards, M.H.; Dennison, E.M.; Cooper, C. Epidemiology and burden of osteoarthritis. Br. Med. Bull. 2013, 105, 185–199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  5. The Burden of Musculoskeletal Diseases in the United States (BMUS). Available online: http://www.boneandjointburden.or (accessed on 20 December 2018).
  6. Lawrence, R.C.; Felson, D.T.; Helmick, C.G.; Arnold, L.M.; Choi, H.; Deyo, R.A.; Gabriel, S.; Hirsch, R.; Hochberg, M.C.; Hunder, G.G.; et al. Estimates of the prevalence of arthritis and other rheumatic conditions in the United States. Part II. Arthritis Rheum. 2008, 58, 26–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  7. Lawrence, J. Generalized osteoarthrosis in a population sample. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1969, 90, 381–389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Nelson, A.E.; Smith, M.W.; Golightly, Y.M.; Jordan, J.M. “Generalized osteoarthritis”: A systematic review. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 2014, 43, 713–720. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  9. Perruccio, A.; Power, J.; Evans, H.; Mahomed, S.; Gandhi, R.; Mahomed, N.; Davis, A. Multiple joint involvement in total knee replacement for osteoarthritis: Effects on patient-reported outcomes. Arthritis Care Res. 2012, 64, 838–846. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  10. Cuperus, N.; Vlieland, T.P.V.; Mahler, E.A.; Kersten, C.C.; Hoogeboom, T.J.; van den Ende, C.H. The clinical burden of generalized osteoarthritis represented by self-reported health-related quality of life and activity limitations: A cross-sectional study. Rheumatol. Int. 2015, 35, 871–877. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Diabetes Statistics Report Website. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/data/statistics-report/index.html (accessed on 20 November 2022).
  12. Guariguata, L.; Whiting, D.R.; Hambleton, I.; Beagley, J.; Linnenkamp, U.; Shaw, J.E. Global estimates of diabetes prevalence for 2013 and projections for 2035. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 2014, 103, 137–149. [Google Scholar]
  13. American Diabetes Association. Economic costs of diabetes in the U.S. in Diabetes Care 2013, 36, 1033–1046.
  14. Seuring, T.; Archangelidi, O.; Suhrcke, M. The Economic Costs of Type 2 Diabetes: A Global Systematic Review. Pharmacoeconomics 2015, 33, 811–831. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  15. Atayde, S.A.; Yoshinari, N.H.; Nascimento, D.P.; Catanozi, S.; Andrade, P.C.; Velosa, A.; Parra, E.R.; Passarelli, M.; Nakandakare, E.R.; Capelozzi, V.L. Experimental diabetes modulates collagen remodelling of joints in rats. Histol. Histopathol. 2012, 27, 1471–1479. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  16. Courties, A.; Gualillo, O.; Berenbaum, F.; Sellam, J. Metabolic stress-induced joint inflammation and osteoarthritis. Osteoarthr. Cartil. 2015, 23, 1955–1965. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  17. Nathan, D.M.; Buse, J.B.; Davidson, M.B.; Ferrannini, E.; Holman, R.R.; Sherwin, R.; Zinman, B. Medical management of hyperglycaemia in type 2 diabetes mellitus: A consensus algorithm for the initiation and adjustment of therapy: A consensus statement from the American Diabetes Association and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes. Diabetologia 2009, 52, 17–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. De Pablos-Velasco, P.; Parhofer, K.G.; Bradley, C.; Eschwege, E.; Gonder-Frederick, L.; Maheux, P.; Wood, I.; Simon, D. Current level of glycaemic control and its associated factors in patients with type 2 diabetes across Europe: Data from the PANORAMA study. Clin. Endocrinol. 2014, 80, 47–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Pani, L.N.; Nathan, D.M.; Grant, R.W. Clinical predictors of disease progression and medication initiation in untreated patients with type 2 diabetes and A1C less than 7%. Diabetes Care 2008, 31, 386–390. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  20. Harman, D. The biologic clock: The mitochondria? J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 1972, 20, 145–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Trounce, I.; Byrne, E.; Marzuki, S. Decline in skeletal muscle mitochondrial respiratory chain function: Possible factor in ageing. Lancet 1989, 333, 637–639. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Alenazi, A.M.; Alothman, S.; Alshehri, M.M.; Rucker, J.; Waitman, L.R.; Wick, J.; Sharma, N.K.; Kluding, P.M. The prevalence of type 2 diabetes and associated risk factors with generalized osteoarthritis: A retrospective study using ICD codes for clinical data repository system. Clin. Rheumatol. 2019, 38, 3539–3547. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Collaboration, E.R.F. Diabetes mellitus, fasting blood glucose concentration, and risk of vascular disease: A collaborative meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies. Lancet 2010, 375, 2215–2222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  24. Louati, K.; Vidal, C.; Berenbaum, F.; Sellam, J. Association between diabetes mellitus and osteoarthritis: Systematic literature review and meta-analysis. RMD Open 2015, 1, e000077. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Williams, M.F.; London, D.A.; Husni, E.M.; Navaneethan, S.; Kashyap, S.R. Type 2 diabetes and osteoarthritis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Diabetes Complicat. 2016, 30, 944–950. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  26. Shin, D. Association between metabolic syndrome, radiographic knee osteoarthritis, and intensity of knee pain: Results of a national survey. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2014, 99, 3177–3183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Eitner, A.; Pester, J.; Vogel, F.; Marintschev, I.; Lehmann, T.; Hofmann, G.O.; Schaible, H.-G. Pain sensation in human osteoarthritic knee joints is strongly enhanced by diabetes mellitus. Pain 2017, 158, 1743–1753. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  28. E Abourazzak, F.; Talbi, S.; Lazrak, F.; Azzouzi, H.; Aradoini, N.; Keita, S.; Errasfa, M.; Harzy, T. Does metabolic syndrome or its individual components affect pain and function in knee osteoarthritis women? Curr. Rheumatol. Rev. 2015, 11, 8–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Schett, G.; Kleyer, A.; Perricone, C.; Sahinbegovic, E.; Iagnocco, A.; Zwerina, J.; Lorenzini, R.; Aschenbrenner, F.; Berenbaum, F.; D’Agostino, M.A.; et al. Diabetes is an independent predictor for severe osteoarthritis: Results from a longitudinal cohort study. Diabetes Care 2013, 36, 403–409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  30. Alenazi, A.M.; Alshehri, M.M.; Alothman, S.; Alqahtani, B.A.; Rucker, J.; Sharma, N.; Segal, N.A.; Bindawas, S.M.; Kluding, P.M. the Association of Diabetes with Knee pain Severity and Distribution in people with Knee osteoarthritis using Data from the osteoarthritis initiative. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 3985. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  31. Alenazi, A.M.; Alshehri, M.M.; Alothman, S.; Alqahtani, B.A.; Rucker, J.; Sharma, N.K.; Bindawas, S.M.; Kluding, P.M. The Association of Diabetes With Knee Pain Locations, Pain While Walking, and Walking Speed: Data From the Osteoarthritis Initiative. Phys. Ther. 2020, 100, 1977–1986. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Alenazi, A.M.; Alshehri, M.M.; Alqahtani, B.A.; Alanazi, A.D.; Bindawas, S.M. Combined diabetes and arthritis are associated with declined gait speed. Clin. Rheumatol. 2020, 40, 1593–1598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Harman, D. Aging: A theory based on free radical and radiation chemistry. J. Gerontol. 1955, 11, 298–300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  34. Khor, A.; Ma, C.A.; Hong, C.; Hui, L.L.; Leung, Y.Y. Diabetes mellitus is not a risk factor for osteoarthritis. RMD Open 2020, 6, e001030. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  35. Dawson, L.P.; Fairley, J.; Papandony, M.; Hussain, S.M.; Cicuttini, F.M.; Wluka, A.E. Is abnormal glucose tolerance or diabetes a risk factor for knee, hip, or hand osteoarthritis? a systematic review. In Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2018. [Google Scholar]
  36. King, K.; Rosenthal, A. The adverse effects of diabetes on osteoarthritis: Update on clinical evidence and molecular mechanisms. Osteoarthr. Cartil. 2015, 23, 841–850. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  37. Courties, A.; Berenbaum, F.; Sellam, J. The phenotypic approach to osteoarthritis: A look at metabolic syndrome-associated osteoarthritis. Jt. Bone Spine 2019, 86, 725–730. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Veronese, N.; Cooper, C.; Reginster, J.-Y.; Hochberg, M.; Branco, J.; Bruyere, O.; Chapurlat, R.; Al-Daghri, N.; Dennison, E.; Herrero-Beaumont, G. Type 2 diabetes mellitus and osteoarthritis. In Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  39. Cannata, F.; Vadalà, G.; Ambrosio, L.; Napoli, N.; Papalia, R.; Denaro, V.; Pozzilli, P. Osteoarthritis and type 2 diabetes: From pathogenetic factors to therapeutic intervention. Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev. 2020, 36, e3254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Li, X.; Zhou, Y.; Liu, J. Association Between Prediabetes and Osteoarthritis: A Meta-Analysis. Horm. Metab. Res. 2022, 54, 104–112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Rios-Arce, N.D.; Hum, N.R.; Loots, G.G. Interactions Between Diabetes Mellitus and Osteoarthritis: From Animal Studies to Clinical Data. JBMR Plus 2022, 6, e10626. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Eitner, A.; Wildemann, B. Diabetes–osteoarthritis and joint pain. Bone Jt. Surg. 2021, 10, 307–309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Courties, A.; Sellam, J. Osteoarthritis and type 2 diabetes mellitus: What are the links? Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 2016, 122, 198–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  44. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Arthritis as a potential barrier to physical activity among adults with diabetes—United States, 2005 and 2007. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2008, 57, 486–489. [Google Scholar]
  45. Nieves-Plaza, M.; Castro-Santana, L.E.; Font, Y.M.; Mayor, A.M.; Vila, L.M. Association of hand or knee osteoarthritis with diabetes mellitus in a population of Hispanics from Puerto Rico. J. Clin. Rheumatol. 2013, 19, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  46. Kim, H.S.; Shin, J.-S.; Lee, J.; Lee, Y.J.; Kim, M.-R.; Bae, Y.-H.; Park, K.B.; Lee, E.-J.; Kim, J.-H.; Ha, I.-H. Association between Knee Osteoarthritis, Cardiovascular Risk Factors, and the Framingham Risk Score in South Koreans: A Cross-Sectional Study. PLoS ONE 2016, 11, e0165325. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Puenpatom, R.A.; Victor, T.W. Increased Prevalence of Metabolic Syndrome in Individuals with Osteoarthritis: An Analysis of NHANES III Data. Postgrad. Med. 2009, 121, 9–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Xie, D.-X.; Wei, J.; Zeng, C.; Yang, T.; Li, H.; Wang, Y.-L.; Long, H.-Z.; Wu, Z.-Y.; Qian, Y.-X.; Li, K.-H. Association between metabolic syndrome and knee osteoarthritis: A cross-sectional study. BMC Musculoskelet. Disord. 2017, 18, 533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  49. Frey, N.; Hügle, T.; Jick, S.; Meier, C.; Spoendlin, J. Type II diabetes mellitus and incident osteoarthritis of the hand: A population-based case–control analysis. Osteoarthr. Cartil./OARS Osteoarthr. Res. Soc. 2016, 24, 1535–1540. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  50. Yasuda, E.; Nakamura, R.; Matsugi, R.; Goto, S.; Ikenaga, Y.; Kuroda, K.; Nakamura, S.; Katsuki, Y.; Katsuki, T. Association between the severity of symptomatic knee osteoarthritis and cumulative metabolic factors. Aging Clin. Exp. Res. 2018, 30, 481–488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  51. Rahman, M.M.; Cibere, J.; Anis, A.H.; Goldsmith, C.H.; Kopec, J.A. Risk of type 2 diabetes among osteoarthritis patients in a prospective longitudinal study. Int. J. Rheumatol. 2014. [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  52. Yoshimura, N.; Muraki, S.; Oka, H.; Tanaka, S.; Kawaguchi, H.; Nakamura, K.; Akune, T. Accumulation of metabolic risk factors such as overweight, hypertension, dyslipidaemia, and impaired glucose tolerance raises the risk of occurrence and progression of knee osteoarthritis: A 3-year follow-up of the ROAD study. Osteoarthr. Cartil. 2012, 20, 1217–1226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  53. Kendzerska, T.; King, L.K.; Lipscombe, L.; Croxford, R.; Stanaitis, I.; Hawker, G.A. The impact of hip and knee osteoarthritis on the subsequent risk of incident diabetes: A population-based cohort study. Diabetologia 2018, 61, 2290–2299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  54. Rogers-Soeder, T.S.; Lane, N.E.; Walimbe, M.; Schwartz, A.V.; Tolstykh, I.; Felson, D.T.; Lewis, C.E.; Segal, N.A.; Nevitt, M.C.; Group MOS. Association of diabetes mellitus and biomarkers of abnormal glucose metabolism with incident radiographic knee osteoarthritis. Arthritis Care Res. 2018, 72, 98–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  55. Eymard, F.; Parsons, C.; Edwards, M.; Petit-Dop, F.; Reginster, J.-Y.; Bruyère, O.; Richette, P.; Cooper, C.; Chevalier, X. Diabetes is a risk factor for knee osteoarthritis progression. Osteoarthr. Cartil. 2015, 23, 851–859. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  56. Pope, D.; Scaife, S.L.; Tzeng, T.H.; Vasdev, S.; Saleh, K.J. Impact of diabetes on early postoperative outcomes after total elbow arthroplasty. J. Shoulder Elb. Surg. 2015, 24, 348–352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  57. Ponce, B.A.; Menendez, M.E.; Oladeji, L.O.; Soldado, F. Diabetes as a risk factor for poorer early postoperative outcomes after shoulder arthroplasty. J. Shoulder Elb. Surg. 2014, 23, 671–678. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  58. King, K.B.; Findley, T.W.; Williams, A.E.; Bucknell, A.L. Veterans with diabetes receive arthroplasty more frequently and at a younger age. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 2013, 471, 3049–3054. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  59. Felson, D.T.; Anderson, J.J.; Naimark, A.; Walker, A.M.; Meenan, R.F. Obesity and knee osteoarthritis: The Framingham Study. Ann. Intern. Med. 1988, 109, 18–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Reijman, M.; Pols, H.; Bergink, A.; Hazes, J.; Belo, J.; Lievense, A.; Bierma-Zeinstra, S. Body mass index associated with onset and progression of osteoarthritis of the knee but not of the hip: The Rotterdam Study. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 2007, 66, 158–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  61. Sharma, L.; Lou, C.; Dunlop, D.D. The mechanism of the effect of obesity in knee osteoarthritis: The mediating role of malalignment. Arthritis Rheum. 2000, 43, 568–575. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  62. Sellam, J.; Berenbaum, F. Is osteoarthritis a metabolic disease? Jt. Bone Spine 2013, 80, 568–573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  63. Kidd, B.L.; Langford, R.M.; Wodehouse, T. Arthritis and pain. Current approaches in the treatment of arthritic pain. Arthritis Res. Ther. 2007, 9, 214–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  64. Li, H.; George, D.M.; Jaarsma, R.L.; Mao, X. Metabolic syndrome and components exacerbate osteoarthritis symptoms of pain, depression and reduced knee function. Ann. Transl. Med. 2016, 4, 133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  65. Eitner, A.; Culvenor, A.G.; Wirth, W.; Schaible, H.G.; Eckstein, F. Impact of diabetes mellitus on knee osteoarthritis pain and physical and mental status: Data from the osteoarthritis initiative. Arthritis Care Res. 2021, 73, 540–548. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  66. Alenazi, A.M.; Obaidat, S.M.; Alshehri, M.M.; Alothman, S.; Gray, C.; Rucker, J.; Waitman, L.R.; Kluding, P.M. Type 2 diabetes affects joint pain severity in people with localized osteoarthritis: A retrospective study. Pain Med. 2020, 21, 1025–1031. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  67. Scherzer, Z.A.; Alvarez, C.; Renner, J.B.; Murphy, L.B.; Schwartz, T.A.; Jordan, J.M.; Golightly, Y.M.; Nelson, A.E. Effects of Comorbid Cardiovascular Disease and Diabetes on Hand Osteoarthritis, Pain, and Functional State Transitions: The Johnston County Osteoarthritis Project. J. Rheumatol. 2020, 47, 1541–1549. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  68. Afifi, A.E.M.A.; Shaat, R.M.; Gharbia, O.M.; EL Boghdadi, Y.; EL Eshmawy, M.M.; El-Emam, O.A. Osteoarthritis of knee joint in metabolic syndrome. Clin. Rheumatol. 2018, 37, 2855–2861. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  69. Reeuwijk, K.G.; De Rooij, M.; Van Dijk, G.M.; Veenhof, C.; Steultjens, M.P.; Dekker, J. Osteoarthritis of the hip or knee: Which coexisting disorders are disabling? Clin. Rheumatol. 2010, 29, 739–747. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  70. Zullig, L.L.; Bosworth, H.B.; Jeffreys, A.S.; Corsino, L.; Coffman, C.J.; Oddone, E.Z.; Yancy, W.S.; Allen, K.D. The association of comorbid conditions with patient-reported outcomes in Veterans with hip and knee osteoarthritis. Clin. Rheumatol. 2014, 34, 1435–1441. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Magnusson, K.; Holte, K.B.; Juel, N.G.; Brox, J.I.; Hagen, K.B.; Haugen, I.K.; Berg, T.J. Long term type 1 diabetes is associated with hand pain, disability and stiffness but not with structural hand osteoarthritis features—The Dialong hand study. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0177118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  72. Alenazi, A.M.; Alshehri, M.M.; Alothman, S.; Gray, C.; Yahya, A.A.; Rucker, J.; Alqahtani, B.A.; Bindawas, S.M.; Kluding, P.M. Diabetes is Associated with Slow Walking Speed in People with Knee Osteoarthritis. Med. Sci. Sport. Exerc. 2019, 51, 13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Alenazi, A.M.; Alqahtani, B.; Alshehri, M.M.; Alanazi, A.D.; Khunti, K.; Vennu, V.; Segal, N.A.; Bindawas, S.M. 1462-P: Baseline Gait Speed Can Predict Diabetes Incidence in Individuals with or at Risk of Knee Osteoarthritis: A Longitudinal Study Using Data from the Osteoarthritis Initiative. Diabetes 2020, 69, 1462. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Alenazi, A.M.; Alqahtani, B.A.; Vennu, V.; Alshehri, M.M.; Alanazi, A.D.; Alrawaili, S.M.; Khunti, K.; Segal, N.A.; Bindawas, S.M. Gait Speed as a Predictor for Diabetes Incidence in People with or at Risk of Knee Osteoarthritis: A Longitudinal Analysis from the Osteoarthritis Initiative. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Zaharia, O.P.; Pesta, D.H.; Bobrov, P.; Kupriyanova, Y.; Herder, C.; Karusheva, Y.; Bódis, K.; Bönhof, G.J.; Knitza, J.; Simon, D. Reduced muscle strength is associated with insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes patients with osteoarthritis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2021, 106, e1062–e1073. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  76. Driban, J.B.; Lo, G.H.; Eaton, C.B.; Lapane, K.L.; Nevitt, M.; Harvey, W.F.; McCulloch, C.E.; McAlindon, T.E. Exploratory analysis of osteoarthritis progression among medication users: Data from the Osteoarthritis Initiative. Ther. Adv. Musculoskelet. Dis. 2016, 8, 207–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  77. Cnop, M.; Igoillo-Esteve, M.; Hughes, S.; Walker, J.; Cnop, I.; Clark, A. Longevity of human islet α-and β-cells. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 2011, 13, 39–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Berenbaum, F. Diabetes-induced osteoarthritis: From a new paradigm to a new phenotype. Postgrad. Med. J. 2012, 88, 240–242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  79. Prieto-Alhambra, D.; Judge, A.; Javaid, M.K.; Cooper, C.; Diez-Perez, A.; Arden, N.K. Incidence and risk factors for clinically diagnosed knee, hip and hand osteoarthritis: Influences of age, gender and osteoarthritis affecting other joints. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 2014, 73, 1659–1664. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  80. Oliveria, S.A.; Felson, D.; Reed, J.I.; Cirillo, P.A.; Walker, A.M. Incidence of symptomatic hand, hip, and knee osteoarthritis among patients in a health maintenance organization. Arthritis Rheum. 1995, 38, 1134–1141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  81. Wild, S.; Roglic, G.; Green, A.; Sicree, R.; King, H. Global prevalence of diabetes estimates for the year 2000 and projections for 2030. Diabetes Care 2004, 27, 1047–1053. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  82. Felson, D.T.; Zhang, Y.; Hannan, M.T.; Naimark, A.; Weissman, B.; Aliabadi, P.; Levy, D. Risk factors for incident radiographic knee osteoarthritis in the elderly: The Framingham Study. Arthritis Rheum. 1997, 40, 728–733. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Mozaffarian, D.; Benjamin, E.J.; Go, A.S.; Arnett, D.K.; Blaha, M.J.; Cushman, M.; Das, S.R.; De Ferranti, S.; Després, J.-P.; Fullerton, H.J.; et al. Executive Summary: Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics—2016 Update: A Report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2016, 133, 447–454. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  84. Gress, T.W.; Nieto, F.J.; Shahar, E.; Wofford, M.R.; Brancati, F.L. Hypertension and antihypertensive therapy as risk factors for type 2 diabetes mellitus. N. Engl. J. Med. 2000, 342, 905–912. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  85. Taskinen, M.-R. Diabetic dyslipidemia. Atheroscler. Suppl. 2002, 3, 47–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  86. Allen, K.D.; Renner, J.B.; Devellis, B.; Helmick, C.G.; Jordan, J.M. Osteoarthritis and sleep: The Johnston County osteoarthritis project. J. Rheumatol. 2008, 35, 1102–1107. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  87. Sale, J.E.; Gignac, M.; Hawker, G. The relationship between disease symptoms, life events, coping and treatment, and depression among older adults with osteoarthritis. J. Rheumatol. 2008, 35, 335–342. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  88. Golden, S.H.; Lazo, M.; Carnethon, M.; Bertoni, A.G.; Schreiner, P.J.; Roux, A.V.D.; Lee, H.B.; Lyketsos, C. Examining a bidirectional association between depressive symptoms and diabetes. JAMA J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2008, 299, 2751–2759. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  89. Cappuccio, F.P.; D’elia, L.; Strazzullo, P.; Miller, M.A. Quantity and quality of sleep and incidence of type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Care 2010, 33, 414–442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  90. Srikanth, V.K.; Fryer, J.L.; Zhai, G.; Winzenberg, T.M.; Hosmer, D.; Jones, G. A meta-analysis of sex differences prevalence, incidence and severity of osteoarthritis. Osteoarthr. Cartil./OARS Osteoarthr. Res. Soc. 2005, 13, 769–781. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  91. Nevitt, M.C.; Felson, D.T.; Williams, E.N.; Grady, D. The effect of estrogen plus progestin on knee symptoms and related disability in postmenopausal women: The Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study, a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum. 2001, 44, 811–818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  92. Cirillo, D.; Wallace, R.B.; Wu, L.; Yood, R.A. Effect of hormone therapy on risk of hip and knee joint replacement in the women’s health initiative. Arthritis Rheum. 2006, 54, 3194–3204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Tschon, M.; Contartese, D.; Pagani, S.; Borsari, V.; Fini, M. Gender and Sex Are Key Determinants in Osteoarthritis Not Only Confounding Variables. A Systematic Review of Clinical Data. J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10, 3178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  94. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Age-Adjusted Rates of Diagnosed Diabetes per 100 Civilian, Non-Institutionalized Population, by Sex, United States, 1980–2014. 2015. Available online: http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/statistics/prev/national/figbysex.html (accessed on 31 October 2016).
  95. Park, J.; Mendy, A.; Vieira, E.R. Various Types of Arthritis in the United States: Prevalence and Age-Related Trends From 1999 to 2014. Am. J. Public Health 2018, 108, 256–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  96. Dillon, C.F.; Rasch, E.K.; Gu, Q.; Hirsch, R. Prevalence of knee osteoarthritis in the United States: Arthritis data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1991–1994. J. Rheumatol. 2006, 33, 2271–2279. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  97. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Diabetes Fact Sheet: National Estimates and General Information on Diabetes and Prediabetes in the United States; US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Atlanta, GA, USA, 2011; Volume 201.
  98. Hossain, P.; Kawar, B.; El Nahas, M. Obesity and diabetes in the developing world—A growing challenge. N. Engl. J. Med. 2007, 356, 213–215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  99. Axford, J.; Butt, A.; Heron, C.; Hammond, J.; Morgan, J.; Alavi, A.; Bolton, J.; Bland, M. Prevalence of anxiety and depression in osteoarthritis: Use of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale as a screening tool. Clin. Rheumatol. 2010, 29, 1277–1283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  100. Reyes, C.; Leyland, K.M.; Peat, G.; Cooper, C.; Arden, N.K.; Prieto-Alhambra, D. Association Between Overweight and Obesity and Risk of Clinically Diagnosed Knee, Hip, and Hand Osteoarthritis: A Population-Based Cohort Study. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2016, 68, 1869–1875. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  101. Magnusson, K.; Hagen, K.B.; Østerås, N.; Nordsletten, L.; Natvig, B.; Haugen, I.K. Diabetes is associated with increased hand pain in erosive hand osteoarthritis: Data from a population-based study. Arthritis Care Res. 2015, 67, 187–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  102. Hart, D.J.; Doyle, D.V.; Spector, T.D. Association between metabolic factors and knee osteoarthritis in women: The Chingford Study. J. Rheumatol. 1995, 22, 1118–1123. [Google Scholar]
  103. Sowers, M.; Karvonen-Gutierrez, C.A.; Palmieri-Smith, R.; Jacobson, J.A.; Jiang, Y.; Ashton-Miller, J.A. Knee osteoarthritis in obese women with cardiometabolic clustering. Arthritis Care Res. 2009, 61, 1328–1336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  104. Findlay, D.M. Vascular pathology and osteoarthritis. Rheumatology 2007, 46, 1763–1768. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  105. Baudart, P.; Louati, K.; Marcelli, C.; Berenbaum, F.; Sellam, J. Association between osteoarthritis and dyslipidaemia: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis. RMD Open 2017, 3, e000442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  106. Addimanda, O.; Mancarella, L.; Dolzani, P.; Ramonda, R.; Fioravanti, A.; Brusi, V.; Pignotti, E.; Meliconi, R. Clinical associations in patients with hand osteoarthritis. Scand. J. Rheumatol. 2012, 41, 310–313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  107. Stürmer, T.; Sun, Y.; Sauerland, S.; Zeissig, I.; Günther, K.P.; Puhl, W.; Brenner, H. Serum cholesterol and osteoarthritis. The baseline examination of the Ulm Osteoarthritis Study. J. Rheumatol. 1998, 25, 1827–1832. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  108. Dahaghin, S.; A Bierma-Zeinstra, S.M.; Koes, B.W.; Hazes, J.M.W.; Pols, H.A.P. Do metabolic factors add to the effect of overweight on hand osteoarthritis? The Rotterdam Study. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 2007, 66, 916–920. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  109. Al-Jarallah, K.; Shehab, D.; Abdella, N.; Al Mohamedy, H.; Abraham, M. Knee Osteoarthritis in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Does Insulin Therapy Retard Osteophyte Formation? Med. Princ. Pract. 2016, 25, 12–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  110. Eymard, F.; Parsons, C.; Edwards, M.H.; Petit-Dop, F.; Reginster, J.-Y.; Bruyère, O.; Chevalier, X.; Cooper, C.; Richette, P. Statin use and knee osteoarthritis progression: Results from a post-hoc analysis of the SEKOIA trial. Jt. Bone Spine 2018, 85, 609–614. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  111. Clockaerts, S.; Van Osch, G.; Bastiaansen-Jenniskens, Y.; Verhaar, J.; Van Glabbeek, F.; Van Meurs, J.; Kerkhof, H.J.; Hofman, A.; Stricker, B.C.; Bierma-Zeinstra, S. Statin use is associated with reduced incidence and progression of knee osteoarthritis in the Rotterdam study. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 2012, 71, 642–647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  112. Kadam, U.; Blagojevic, M.; Belcher, J. Statin use and clinical osteoarthritis in the general population: A longitudinal study. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 2013, 28, 943–949. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Table
Table 1. Summary of the studies examining the association between osteoarthritis and pain in diabetic individuals.
Table 1. Summary of the studies examining the association between osteoarthritis and pain in diabetic individuals.
Study Origin Sample Characteristics FindingsValue
Reeuwijk et al., 2010 [69]NetherlandsSample size: 288 (71.2% female)
Age: 66 ± 8.7 years
BMI: 27.2 ± 4.5 kg/m2
Diagnostic criteria of O.A: radiological
Pain severity: 4.8		DM was associated with pain severity after adjusting age and sex.β = 1.2, 95% CI [0.2, 2.2]; p < 0.05
Abourazzak et al., 2015 [28]MoroccoSample size: 130 (100% female)
Age: 56.7 ± 8 years
BMI: 32.5 ± 2.9 kg/m2
Diagnostic criteria: Kallgren Lawrence grade ≥2
Pain severity: 3.6 ± 1.2		DM is associated with a higher level of pain.OR = 3.7, 95% CI [1.5–5.9]; p = 0.001
Eitner et al., 2017 [27]GermanySample size: 70
(56% female)
Age: 71 ± 7 years
BMI: 31 ± 0.7 kg/m2
Diagnostic criteria: radiological
Pain severity: N/A		Patients with end-stage OA with DM had an 8-fold increased risk of being in the high-pain group compared with patients with end-stage OA without DM after adjusted for BMI, age, and sex.OR = 8.2, 95% CI [2.2–30.3]; p = 0.002
Magnusson et al., 2017 [71]NorwaySample size: 96
(49% female)
Age: 62.2 ± 7.4 years
BMI: 26.2 ± 4 kg/m2
Diagnostic criteria: Radiographical
Pain severity: N/T		Strong and consistent associations were observed between long term type 1 DM and increased hand pain. β = 2.78, 95% CI [1.65–3.91]
Eymard et al., 2015 [55]FranceSample size: 559
(70% female)
Age: 62.8 years
BMI: 29.8 kg/m2
Diagnostic criteria: radiographical
Pain severity: N/T 		DM was not significantly associated with worsening WOMAC subscores of pain.201 vs. 220; p = 0.656
Zullig et al., 2015 [70] USASample size: 300
(9% female)
Age: 61.1 ± 9 years
BMI: 33.8 ± 5.2 kg/m2
Diagnostic criteria: radiological
Pain severity: 10.2 on WOMAC		DM is associated with worsening in pain level in people with knee OA. β = −0.6, 95% CI [−0.3, 1.4]; p = 0.193
Scherzer et al., 2020 [67]USASample size: 852 (67.3% female)
Age: 59.5 ± 7.4 years
BMI: 30.9 ± 6.5 kg/m2
Diagnostic criteria: radiographical
Pain severity: N/A		People with DM were more likely to experience worsening pain; pain was assessed using the AUStralian CANadian Osteoarthritis Hand Index (AUSCAN).β = −5.08, 95% CI [1.38, 18.77]
Afifi et al., 2018 [68]EgyptSample size: 60 (91% female)
Age: 52.8 ± 8 years
BMI: 39.2 ± 9 kg/m2
Diagnostic criteria: Radiological
Pain severity: N/A		There was a significant association of WOMAC score with DM in linear regression analysis.β = 0.31
(p = 0.003)
Schett et al., 2012 [29]GermanySample size: 927
Age: 67.6 ± 9.6 years
BMI: 27 ± 3.9 kg/m2
Diagnostic criteria: Radiographical
Pain severity: N/T		Pain subscales of
the WOMAC and KOOS scores exhibit
particularly pronounced associations
with type 2 DM.		β = 91.7, 95% CI [69.4–100]

β = 95.0, 95% CI [77.5–100]
Eitner et al., 2020 [65]USASample size: 2481
(61% female)
Age: 65 years
BMI: 31.6 kg/m2
Diagnostic criteria: Radiographical
Pain severity: N/T		Individuals with DM had worse
KOOS pain, and worse NRS pain
independent of BMI, OA severity, age, and sex.		β = −4.72, 95% CI [−7.22, −2.23]

β = 0.42, 95% CI [0.04, 0.80]
Alenazi et al., 2019 [66]USASample size: 819 (54.3% female)
Age: 65.08 ± 9.77 years
BMI: 37.7 ± 0.5 kg/m2
Diagnostic criteria: Osteoarthritis Initiative
Pain severity: 5.3		HbA1c value was significantly associated with increased joint pain severity only after adjustments for age, gender, BMI, OA location, and pain medication.β = 0.36, 95% CI [0.036, 0.67]; p = 0.029
Alenazi et al., 2020 [30]USASample size: 1319 (56.5% female)
Age:61.2 ± 9.04 years
BMI: 30.1 ± 4.9 kg/m2
Diagnostic criteria: Osteoarthritis Initiative
Pain severity: 5.4		DM is significantly associated with increased knee pain severity over 7 days and 30 days after adjustment for age, gender, race, depression symptoms, composite OA score, use of medication, and knee injection.β = 0.68, 95% CI [0.25, 1.11]

β = 0.59, 95% CI [0.17, 1.01]
Alenazi et al., 2020 [31]USASample size: 1790 (56.5% female)
Age: 69.6 ± 8.7 years
BMI: 32.3 ± 5.09 kg/m2
Diagnostic criteria: Osteoarthritis Initiative
Pain severity: N/A		DM is significantly associated with moderate and severe pain while walking when compared with no DM and no pain while walking, and after controlling for age, gender, BMI, depression symptoms, and OA grade.OR = 1.78; 95% CI = 1.02–3.10

OR = 2.52;
95% CI = 1.01–6.28
Table
Table 2. Summary of shared risk factors for OA and diabetes.
Table 2. Summary of shared risk factors for OA and diabetes.
Risk FactorsOADiabetes
AgeOlder age increased the risk [77]Older age increased the risk [78]
GenderFemales have higher risk than males [79,80]Females have higher prevalence of DM than men at older ages [81]
ObesityObesity increased the risk [59,82]Obesity increased the risk [83]
HypertensionAssociated with increased risk [52]Associated with increased risk [84]
DyslipidemiaAssociated with increased risk [52]Associated with increased risk [85]
Other risk factorsPrevious injury, joint arthroplasty, sleep disorders [86], and depression [87]Depression [88] and sleep disorders [89]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Alenazi, A.M.; Alhowimel, A.S.; Alshehri, M.M.; Alqahtani, B.A.; Alhwoaimel, N.A.; Segal, N.A.; Kluding, P.M. Osteoarthritis and Diabetes: Where Are We and Where Should We Go? Diagnostics 2023, 13, 1386. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics13081386

AMA Style

Alenazi AM, Alhowimel AS, Alshehri MM, Alqahtani BA, Alhwoaimel NA, Segal NA, Kluding PM. Osteoarthritis and Diabetes: Where Are We and Where Should We Go? Diagnostics. 2023; 13(8):1386. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics13081386

Chicago/Turabian Style

Alenazi, Aqeel M., Ahmed S. Alhowimel, Mohammed M. Alshehri, Bader A. Alqahtani, Norah A. Alhwoaimel, Neil A. Segal, and Patricia M. Kluding. 2023. "Osteoarthritis and Diabetes: Where Are We and Where Should We Go?" Diagnostics 13, no. 8: 1386. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics13081386

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop