Tread-Braked Wheels: Review and Recent Findings
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Cast Iron Brake Blocks vs. Composite Brake Blocks
2.1. The Problem of Tyred Wheels
2.2. The Generalized Adoption of Composite Brake Blocks
- high friction (K blocks): f = 0.25–0.30
- medium friction (L blocks): f = 0.15–0.25
- low friction—low noise (LL blocks): f = 0.10–0.15
2.3. Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Composite Brake Blocks
3. Mechanical Behavior of Steel Wheels at High Temperatures
- The elastic shakedown: The material returns to an elastic behavior after a few plastic cycles;
- The plastic shakedown: The material remains in a stable plastic cycle;
- The ratchetting: the plastic cycles are not stable and an incremental growth of plastic deformation occurs.
4. Measurement of Actual Wheel Tread Temperature
4.1. Small-Scale and Full-Scale Temperature Measurement
4.2. Temperatures Reached During In-Service Tests
- Landstrom [43] measured mean wheel rim temperatures of passing wagons with a thermal camera placed wayside (8 m from the track), finding most of the wheels around 150 °C with maxima around 240 °C. A high-speed mid-wave infrared (3–5 μm) thermal camera was used by the authors for both field tests and full-scale bench tests described in the next paragraph;
- Cummings [44] performed indirect temperature measurements correlating in-service braking power (estimated from vehicle speed and pressure reduction in the brake pipe) and test rig measurements, finding wheel temperatures below 93 °C. Also, measurements made with wayside wheel temperature detectors showed temperature values below 100 °C;
- Walia [45] carried out field tests on a commuter train, measuring the temperature with sliding thermocouples on the wheel tread and embedded thermocouples on brake blocks. Low temperatures were reached: 40 °C on a motor bogie with electrodynamic braking and cast-iron blocks and 110 °C on a trailer bogie with organic blocks. The results were then used to calibrate a numerical model;
- With the same instrumentation, a maximum temperature of 150 °C was measured by Teimourimanesh [46] on tread-braked wheels of a metro train with composite blocks. Higher values were measured by Vernersson [47] at the Velim test track, applying an average braking power of 50 kW for about 30 min, reaching about 500 °C on the wheel tread. This test aimed to simulate the Gotthard descent with a continuous application of 50 kW for 45 min and an average speed of 60 km/h [2]. Lower values (about 260 °C) were obtained during in-service field tests on the coal line;
- Orringer [48] performed speed reduction and stop braking to reproduce service conditions, measuring the temperature with embedded thermocouples installed below the wheel tread and recording up to 538 °C;
- Vignoli [49] performed drag braking tests on a 21% mean slope in several working conditions, including the presence of the electrodynamic braking of locomotives. Temperatures up to 400 °C were recorded with dynamic braking from two locomotives, between 500 °C and 600 °C with dynamic braking from only one locomotive, and up to 670 °C without any dynamic braking.
Author | Vehicle | Brake Blocks | Brake Maneuver | Wheel Temperature | Measurement |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Landstrom 2025 [43] | Freight train | Not specified | Drag braking (about 30 kW for 30 min) | 240 °C | Wayside thermal camera |
Cummings 2023 [44] | Freight train | Not specified | Braking maneuvers with 5–45 kW for 0.5–5 min | 100 °C | Indirect and wayside hot-wheel detector |
Walia 2019 [45] | Commuter train | Cast iron and composite (organic) | Repetitive stop braking | 40 °C (cast iron) 100 °C (organic) | Sliding thermocouples |
Teimourimanesh 2014 [46] | Metro train | Composite (organic) | Repetitive stop braking | 150 °C | Sliding thermocouples |
Vernersson 2007 [47] | Freight train on Velim test track | Composite | Drag braking (about 50 kW for 30 min) | 500 °C | Sliding thermocouples |
Freight train | Drag braking (about 10 kW for 20 min) | 250 °C | Sliding thermocouples | ||
Orringer 1995 [48] | Commuter train | Not specified | Repetitive speed reduction and stop braking | 538 °C | Embedded thermocouples (2.5 mm below the tread) |
Vignoli 1995 [49] | Freight train | Not specified | Drag braking (about 25 kW for 30 min) | 670 °C | On board and wayside hot-wheel detector |
4.3. Temperatures Reached During Braking on Bench Tests
- Landstrom performed full-scale bench tests [43,50,51] measuring temperatures with both sliding thermocouples on the tread and a high-speed mid-wave infrared (3–5 μm) thermal camera placed laterally and using a stainless steel mirror to measure the wheel tread temperature, showing the presence of so-called “hot spots” around the circumference of the wheel tread. The emissivity was estimated by the authors comparing the thermal camera results with the sliding thermocouples readings, but the value is not given in [43]. Painting on the external side of the wheel was applied in [50], while a general emissivity value for oxidized steel (in the range ε = 0.4–0.6) was applied in [51]. The results from drag braking tests with 30 and 50 kW applied for 45 and 30 min showed that tread temperatures over 600 °C are reached, but hot spot temperatures can be up to 200 °C higher than the global tread temperature;
- Hot spots with temperatures exceeding 500 °C were also measured by Cookson [52] using thermal images (no information about thermal camera characteristics) even if the average temperature of the wheel tread measured by sliding thermocouples was in the order of 350 °C. Hot spots appear early when the wheel surface is still globally colder, and relevant hardness reductions (from 350 HB to 230 HB) were measured at these positions after testing;
- Chamorro [24] performed two low-power (about 10 kW) drag brakings of 30 min each, reaching only 150 °C, and then 3D finite element analysis was performed to evaluate abnormal braking load (200% and 300% over the normal service braking). Temperatures around 500 °C were found only for the 300% case;
- Yevtushenko [53] performed several stop braking maneuvers from 80 km/h to calibrate and compare two different FE models (2D axisymmetric and 3D) with two different organic composite brake shoes. Temperatures up to 160 °C were measured with embedded thermocouples placed 5 mm below the wheel tread;
- Handa [54] developed a tread-wear model of the wheel in function of the tread temperature, combining full-scale stop braking, drag braking, and finite element simulations, reaching maximum tread temperatures (simulated) of 400 °C;
- Li [25] used the results of an emergency braking test to calibrate a 3D finite element thermal model that combined with a longitudinal dynamic analysis. A wheel–rail 3D finite element model was used to evaluate the crack initiation time. The maximum temperature measured with the thermal camera during the emergency braking test was 450 °C. No information is given about the infrared thermometer used;
- Wasilewski [16] measured the friction properties of two organic materials on both small-scale and full-scale tests. Stop braking and drag braking were applied on the full-scale bench, monitoring the tread temperatures with three thermocouples placed 2 mm below the wheel surface. Values up to 325 °C were reached for a drag braking of 45 min, applying a power of about 19 kW;
- Several stop braking tests were conducted by Esmaeili [26] and Caprioli [27], measuring the temperature with both embedded thermocouples placed at 10 mm below the tread and with a thermal camera (ε = 1) capturing the contact surface. Embedded thermocouples reached about 300 °C, while surface temperatures measured by thermal camera were up to 500 °C. Thermoelastic instability (TEI) that forms hot bands along the circumference was shown and reproduced by a finite element analysis reaching a maximum temperature of 500 °C for one band 50 mm wide, while about 350 °C was obtained with one band 80 mm wide, i.e., with nominal conditions;
- Similar tests and results are described by Ikeuchi [55];
- Stop braking maneuvers were also applied by Handa [28], measuring temperatures with embedded thermocouples installed 10 mm below the tread surface to calibrate a numerical model by which the full temperature distribution was calculated. Tread temperatures reached 320 °C with nominal tread-block contact, i.e., 80 mm wide, and 570 °C with half-width contact. A set of 130 braking cycles was performed by Handa [56] to generate surface cracks. The wheel temperature was measured only 10 mm beneath the surface, reaching 200 °C at each braking cycle;
- Vernersson [57] performed several drag braking tests with different combinations of block material (cast iron, organic, and sintered) and configurations (1Bg, 1Bgu, 2Bg, and 2Bgu), speed (50, 75, and 100 km/h), and brake power (30, 40, and 50 kW). Temperature was measured with a long-wave infrared (8–14 μm) thermal camera placed laterally to the bench to capture both the wheel and the blocks, which were painted black. Different emissivity values were used due to the different measuring conditions: ε = 1 for the painted blocks (painted, rough surface), ε = 0.95 for the painted wheel (painted, smooth surface), and ε = 0.7 for the wheel tread (unpainted, oxidized). Due to the position of the thermal camera, results are related to one side of the wheel, and only two positions are given (middle of the wheel rim and transition between wheel web and wheel rim). For brake blocks, the mean temperature is also given. A summary of the results for all materials and 2Bgu configuration is given in Table 4. The experimental data were then used to calibrate a numerical model and evaluate the heat partitioning between the wheel and the block;
- Model calibration using full-scale tests is shown also by Donzella [29], reproducing a series of brake cycles with actual parameters from the service (speed and braking power). Tread temperature up to 350 °C was measured with sliding thermocouples.
Author | Counter Roller | Brake Blocks | Brake Maneuver | Wheel Temperature | Measurement |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Landstrom 2025 [43] Landstrom 2024 [50] Landstrom 2023 [51] | No | Composite (organic) | Drag braking (30 kW for 45 min and 50 kW for 30 min) | 680 °C with hot spots | Sliding thermocouples and thermal camera |
Cookson 2023 [52] | No | Not specified | Drag braking (32 kW) | 350 °C with hot spots | Sliding thermocouples and thermal camera |
Chamorro 2023 [24] | No | Not specified | Drag braking (about 10 kW for 30 min) | 150 °C | Sliding thermocouples |
Yevtushenko 2022 [53] | No | Composite (organic) | Repetitive stop braking from 80 km/h | 160 °C | Embedded thermocouples (5 mm below the tread) |
Handa 2020 [54] | Yes | Composite (sintered) | Repetitive hold braking at 60 km/h and stop braking from 95 km/h | 200 °C (stop braking) 300 °C (drag braking) | Embedded thermocouples (10 mm below the tread) |
Li 2017 [25] | No | Composite (sintered) | Emergency braking from 120 km/h | 450 °C | Infrared thermometer |
Wasilewski 2017 [16] | No | Composite (organic) | Drag braking (about 19 kW for 45 min) Stop braking from 90 km/h | 325 °C (drag braking) 196 °C (stop braking) | Embedded thermocouples (2 mm below the tread) |
Esmaeli [26] 2017 Caprioli [27] 2016 Ikeuchi [55] 2016 | Yes | Composite (organic and sintered) | Repetitive stop braking from 160 km/h | 300 °C (embedded thermocouple) 500 °C (thermal camera) | Embedded thermocouples (10 mm below the tread) and thermal camera |
Handa [28] 2012 Handa [56] 2010 | Yes | Composite (sintered) | Repetitive stop braking from 130 km/h | 150 °C 200 °C | Embedded thermocouples (10 mm below the tread) |
Vernersson [57] 2007 | No | Cat iron and composite (organic and sintered) | Drag braking (30, 40, 50 kW for 45, 37.5, 30 min) | 380 °C (organic) 340 °C (cast iron) 310 °C (sintered) | Thermal camera (side of the wheel) |
Donzella [29] 1998 | No | Not specified | Repetitive stop braking | 350 °C | Sliding thermocouples |
4.4. Effect of Wheel–Rail Contact and Limitations of the Available Data
- Vernersson [58] simulated a drag at 30 kW for 30 min by a 2D axisymmetric model, showing a rail heat absorption of 27% and 29% for cast iron and composite brake blocks, respectively;
- Vernersson [47] found lower values (22%) after tests and model calibration;
- Teimourimanesh [59] found a heat percentage flowing in the rail of about 20% for a 2D circumferential model, while from 21 to 27% for a 2D axisymmetric model depending on the axial position of the wheel–rail contact;
- Vernersson [20] found that rail chill generates a 15% wheel temperature change after 30 repetitive stop braking maneuvers;
- Peng [60] showed that both stop and drag braking have a similar influence (about 10%) on the maximum wheel tread temperature: for stop braking, a reduction of 22 °C (from 207 to 185 °C), while for drag braking, a reduction of 62 °C (from 632 to 570 °C);
- Teimourimanesh [61] estimated a cooling because of rail chill of about 100 °C for drag braking applied on new (from 500 to 400 °C, i.e., 20% difference) and worn (from 600 to 500 °C, i.e., 17% difference) wheels of both a metro vehicle and a freight wagon.
5. Thermal Damages of Railway Wheels
5.1. Troubles Occurred in the Last Years and the Regulatory Framework
- Design modification of the BA314 wheel to reduce stresses on the wheel web;
- BA004 wheels are no longer considered thermostable wheels;
- Additional measures to identify thermal overload of wheels;
- Amendments to the vehicle’s inspection procedures inside the General Contract of Use (GCU) [63].
5.2. Survey on the Classification of Wheel Tread Damages
- EN 15313:2016, Railway applications—In-service wheelset operation requirements—In-service and off-vehicle wheelset maintenance [68];
- R. Deuce, Wheel Tread Damage: An Elementary Guide [69];
- B169/DT405, Catalogue of defects on wheels/axles/wheelsets [70];
- S. Cantini, S. Cervello, R. Gallo, Handbook of Wheelset Service Faults [71].
5.3. The Appearance of a New Defect
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Block Wear Rate | Wheel Tread Wear Rate | Wheel Equivalent Conicity Growth | |
---|---|---|---|
Sintered | 0.2 | 1.6 | 2.6 |
Organic | 0.4 | 1.4 | 1.3 |
Organic | Cast Iron | Sintered | |
---|---|---|---|
Midde of the wheel rim | 380 °C | 330 °C | 310 °C |
Transition between web and rim | 350 °C | 290 °C | 300 °C |
Brake block | 250 °C | 420 °C | 370 °C |
GCU Code | Description | Appearance | Action |
---|---|---|---|
1.2.2 | Thermal overloading due to braking | Paint cracks or shelling on wheel web Fusion of brake blocks Build-up material on wheel tread (see 1.3.4) Blueish discoloration of the wheel rim | Isolate brake (without gauge widening) Detach the wagon (with gauge widening) |
1.3.3 | Wheel flat | No description | Detach the wagon for wheel flats longer than 60 mm * |
1.3.4 | Build-up material | No description | Detach the wagon for metal build-up over a length > 60 mm or thickness > 1 mm Isolate the brake over a length > 10 mm and thickness ≤ 1 mm * |
1.3.5 | Cavity or shelling | No description | Detach the wagon for defects greater than 60 mm * |
1.3.6 | Cracks and notches | Isolated cracks | Isolate brake (without thermal overloading) Detach the wagon (with thermal overloading) |
1.3.8 | Grooves and hollow wear | No description | Isolate brake (grooves with sharp edges < 1mm) Detach the wagon (grooves with sharp edges ≥ 1 mm or hollow wear > 2 mm) |
Wheel Flats [68] | |
The tread is flattened in one or more areas showing a typical oval shape as the braking force causes the block of the wheel and leading to a high level of creepage between the wheel and the rail. Generally, they are caused by low adhesion conditions, errors in the Wheel Sliding Protection (WSP) system, use of the emergency brake. It is worth noting that facets are not only caused by abrasion between the two metal surfaces, as the heat generated by the sliding process causes most of the damage. | |
Metal build-up [68] | |
Metal build-up appears as an accumulation of material (from either the brake blocks or the rail) on the wheel tread. The material is almost welded on the wheel due to excessive thermal loading and can be regularly distributed along the tread circumference. | |
Cavities and shelling [70] | |
Particles of material are separated from the running tread due to fatigue or excessive stress. This type of defect is generally isolated and can grow creating deeper cavities (cavities or deep sheeling) due to the presence of other defects such wheel flats. They can arise from both mechanical and thermal stresses. | |
Isolated transverse cracks [68] | |
The tread has transverse cracks, in the direction of the wheel axes. These cracks usually originate on the tread surface and then propagate radially toward the inside of the wheel (thermal cracks) or circumferentially (mechanical cracks). | |
Grooves and channels [70] | |
These are found all around the circumference of the wheel and can affect the entire width of the tread. The main difference is that grooves are rounded and have no sharp edges, while channels are characterized by sharp edges. Grooves and channels can occur with all types of brake block materials, although they are more common in combination with composite and sintered materials. |
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© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Megna, G.; Bracciali, A. Tread-Braked Wheels: Review and Recent Findings. Machines 2025, 13, 579. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines13070579
Megna G, Bracciali A. Tread-Braked Wheels: Review and Recent Findings. Machines. 2025; 13(7):579. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines13070579
Chicago/Turabian StyleMegna, Gianluca, and Andrea Bracciali. 2025. "Tread-Braked Wheels: Review and Recent Findings" Machines 13, no. 7: 579. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines13070579
APA StyleMegna, G., & Bracciali, A. (2025). Tread-Braked Wheels: Review and Recent Findings. Machines, 13(7), 579. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines13070579