Occurrence Forms, Composition, Distribution, Origin and Potential Hazard of Natural Hydrogen–Hydrocarbon Gases in Ore Deposits of the Khibiny and Lovozero Massifs: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Brief Geology
2.1. The Khibiny Massif and Apatite-Nepheline Deposits
2.2. The Lovozero Massif and Co-Named Loparite Deposit
3. Methods
4. Morphological Types of Gas Phase
4.1. Occluded Gases
4.2. Diffusely Dispersed Gases
4.3. Free Gases
4.4. On the Spatial Relationship of Gas Occurrence Forms
5. On the Origin of HHCGs in Nepheline-Syenite Massifs
6. Gas Content of Underground Mine Openings, Basic Principles, and Measures for Gas-safe Mining
7. Conclusions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Gas | Number of Analyses | Minimum | Maximum | Median |
---|---|---|---|---|
The Khibiny apatite-nepheline deposits | ||||
CH4 | 5029 | 0.006 | 238 | 8.28 |
C2H6 | 3037 | 0.00003 | 8.61 | 0.44 |
1 С3–С5 | 1233 | 0.00005 | 1.70 | 0.05 |
H2 | 4989 | 0.003 | 18.11 | 0.5 |
He | 2627 | 0.00005 | 0.43 | 0.01 |
N2 | 1508 | 0.04 | 14.3 | 0.89 |
O2 | 1494 | 0.0015 | 1.84 | 0.08 |
CO | 168 | 0.00007 | 3.03 | 0.005 |
CO2 | 907 | 0.00021 | 4.03 | 0.06 |
The Lovozero loparite deposit | ||||
CH4 | 689 | 0.011 | 82.2 | 3.7 |
C2H6 | 676 | 0.0014 | 5.58 | 0.29 |
1 С3–С5 | 68 | 0.00032 | 0.872 | 0.043 |
H2 | 664 | 0.057 | 25.15 | 1.34 |
He | 664 | 0.00011 | 0.26 | 0.005 |
N2 | 665 | 0.013 | 6.53 | 0.43 |
O2 | 663 | 0.0034 | 1.2 | 0.05 |
CO | 51 | 0.00013 | 0.014 | 0.0015 |
CO2 | 3 | 0.013 | 1.05 | 0.05 |
Variable Min–Max/Median (Number of Analyses), cm3/kg | |||
---|---|---|---|
The Khibiny apatite-nepheline deposits | |||
Extraction manner 1 | UR | LV | LVH |
CH4 | 0.004–7.64 | 0.0007–11.5 | 0.0001–13.92 |
0.07 (32) | 0.12 (134) | 0.21 (454) | |
C2H6 | 0.0002–2.2 | 0.0001–0.49 | 0.00002–1.96 |
0.014 (20) | 0.08 (97) | 0.01 (247) | |
H2 | 0.0001–0.058 | 0.0004–2.40 | 0.001–4.29 |
0.004 (33) | 0.063 (129) | 0.028 (294) | |
He | 0.0002–0.09 | 0.0006–0.13 | 0.0008–0.17 |
0.004 (36) | 0.004 (140) | 0.004 (283) | |
CO2 | 0.07–3.57 | 0.015–3.6 | 0.013–29.7 |
0.47 (17) | 0.22 (77) | 0.88 (134) | |
The Lovozero loparite deposit | |||
Extraction manner 2 | LV | HV | HVH |
CH4 | 0.0039–11.0 | 0.0004–0.83 | 0.017–2.01 |
0.61 (24) | 0.04 (12) | 0.10 (23) | |
C2H6 | 0.002–0.45 | 0.00004–0.04 | 0.0008–0.12 |
0.05 (15) | 0.07 (8) | 0.01 (21) | |
H2 | 0.0018–0.99 | 0.00002–0.11 | 0.001–0.49 |
0.19 (22) | 0.0016 (12) | 0.011 (23) | |
He | 0.003–0.026 | 0.00002–0.004 | 0.00001–0.006 |
0.009 (14) | 0.0002 (12) | 0.0002 (22) | |
CO2 | 0.05–1.7 | 0.54–0.92 | 0.008–2.48 |
0.3 (5) | 0.73 (2) | 0.82 (6) |
Sample | CH4 | C2H6 | C3–C5 | H2 | He | N2 | O2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
The Khibiny apatite-nepheline deposits [18] | |||||||
9-б | 75.0 | 8.1 | 0.86 | 17.6 | 0.31 | 1.1 | 0.1 |
36 | 76.6 | 5.9 | 0.52 | 19.0 | 0.42 | 8.8 | 1.3 |
Nn | 79.7 | 5.2 | 0.7 | 2.9 | 0.22 | 9.1 | 2.1 |
IHS-12 | 64.6 | 3.6 | 1 n.a. | 17.9 | 0.64 | 8.9 | 2.2 |
360/1190 | 66.8 | 3.2 | 0.32 | 18.9 | 0.65 | 8.2 | 2.3 |
721-2 | 62.3 | 2.6 | 0.81 | 26.5 | 0.26 | 7.5 | 0.8 |
The Lovozero loparite deposit [19] | |||||||
1/51 | 49.6 | 2.75 | 0.14 | 41.6 | 0.87 | 1.4 | 0.43 |
14/26 | 51.4 | 2.07 | 0.10 | 33.0 | 0.95 | 9.7 | 3.0 |
25/26 | 57.2 | 3.23 | 0.13 | 29.0 | 0.75 | 6.6 | 1.8 |
45/21 | 65.8 | 6.32 | 0.37 | 10.9 | 1.87 | 11.7 | 2.5 |
110/19 | 52.6 | 3.15 | 0.11 | 37.0 | 1.0 | 4.2 | 1.15 |
173/37 | 34.6 | 1.28 | 0.06 | 57.8 | 0.89 | 4.0 | 0.68 |
CH4 in AGM, vol. % | Variable Min–Max/Median (Number of Analyses), vol. % | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
CH4 | C2H6 | C3–C5 | H2 | He | |
The Khibiny apatite-nepheline deposits | |||||
>50 | 68–99 | 0.1–9.5 | 0.2–0.8 | 0.5–29 | 0.3–2.1 |
87 (12) | 3.9 (9) | 0.5 (5) | 9 (12) | 0.7 (6) | |
<50, >10 | 56–98 | 1.2–8.3 | 0.4–2.2 | 0.7–40 | 0.1–1.6 |
84 (23) | 5.3 (18) | 0.7 (9) | 11 (23) | 0.8 (20) | |
<10, >1 | 83–94 | 3.2–7.2 | 0.5–0.5 | 2.8–13.4 | 0.1–0.7 |
88 (8) | 4.4 (4) | 0.5 (1) | 9.7 (8) | 0.6 (5) | |
<1, >0.1 | 2.5–99 | 0.7–22 | 0.2–13 | 0.2–97 | 0.04–17 |
87 (51) | 4.5 (18) | 0.6 (17) | 9 (8) | 0.6 (42) | |
<0.1 | 4.9–99 | 0.5–33 | 0.2–4.3 | 0.9–92 | 0.6–32 |
82 (165) | 6 (49) | 0.8 (25) | 9 (164) | 4 (133) | |
The Lovozero loparite deposit | |||||
>50 | 60–73 | 2.4–6.3 | 0.1–0.3 | 18–36 | 0.8–2.6 |
64 (4) | 3 (4) | 0.2 (3) | 32 (4) | 0.9 (4) | |
<50, >10 | 37–92 | 1.0–3.6 | 0.02–0.2 | 2–61 | 0.8–3.1 |
60 (14) | 2.4 (11) | 0.12 (6) | 38 (14) | 1.0 (13) | |
<10, >1 | 18–96 | 0.2–4.5 | 0.04–2.3 | 4–81 | 0.1–12 |
57 (51) | 1.7(26) | 0.14 (10) | 40 (51) | 1.0 (46) | |
<1, >0.1 | 9–99 | 0.5–6 | 0.02–0.5 | 0.2–90 | 0.1–3.5 |
59 (59) | 1.2 (5) | 0.06 (3) | 40 (59) | 1.0 (57) | |
<0.1 | 8–97 | 0.9–42 | 1.0 | 1–91 | 0.3–79 |
65 (285) | 15 (26) | 1.0 (1) | 24 (265) | 9 (264) |
Component | Gas Type | Concentration 1 | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Khibiny | |||
δ 13СC1-C5 | OG | −13.2–−4.3 | [106,107] |
δ 13СCH4 | OG | −14.6–−3.2 | [106] |
δ 13СCH4 | OG | −25.3–−3.3 | [81] |
δ 13СCH4 | OG | −22.4–−5.5 | [36] |
δ 13СCH4 | OG | −13.3–−7.6 | [38] |
δ 13СC2H6 | OG | −24.5–−9.1 | [106] |
δ 13СC2H6 | OG | −19.2–−14.3 | [36] |
δ 13СC2H6 | OG | −23.3–−16.1 | [38] |
δ 13СC3H8 | OG | −26.2–−25.7 | [107] |
δ 13СC3H8 | OG | −19.6–−13.0 | [36] |
δ 13СC3H8 | OG | −21.3–−14.1 | [38] |
δ 13СC4H10 | OG | −19.7–−13.2 | [36] |
δ 13СC4H10 | OG | −17.4–−16.8 | [38] |
δ 13СC5H12 | OG | −14.0 | [36] |
δ 13СC5H12 | OG | −20.6–−19.6 | [38] |
δ 13ССО2 | OG | −8.5–+10.6 | [107] |
δ 13ССО2 | OG | −7.3–−3.8 | [81] |
δ 13ССО2 | OG | −16.8–−13.6 | [36] |
δ 13ССО2 | OG | −18.6–−14.6 | [38] |
δ DСН4 | OG | −118–−50 | [38] |
δ DС2Н6 | OG | −175–−120 | [38] |
δ 13СC1-C5 | FG | −19.3–−11.8 | [106,107] |
δ 13СCH4 | FG | −16.5–−6.5 | [107,109] |
δ 13СC2H6 | FG | −24.0–−11.7 | [107,109] |
δ DСН4 | FG | −82–−56 | [108] |
δ DС2Н6 | FG | −173–−144 | [108] |
Lovozero | |||
δ 13СC1-C5 | OG | −5.3 | [106] |
δ 13СCH4 | OG | −11.6–−4.7 | [45] |
δ 13СC2H6 | OG | −17.0–−9.6 | [45] |
δ 13СC3H8 | OG | −15.9–−7.8 | [45] |
δ 13ССО2 | OG | −29.9–−16.3 | [45] |
δ DСН4 | OG | −164–−132 | [110] |
δ DСН4 | OG | −143–−93 | [45] |
δ DС2Н6 | OG | −211–−147 | [45] |
δ DН2 | OG | −629–−198 | [110] |
δ 13СC1-C5 | FG | −15.7–−7.1 | [110] |
δ 13СCH4 | FG | −11.8 | [110] |
δ 13СC2H6 | FG | −15.2 | [110] |
δ DСН4 | FG | −167–−162 | [110] |
δ DС2Н6 | FG | −202 | [110] |
δ DН2 | FG | −644–−359 | [110] |
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Nivin, V.A. Occurrence Forms, Composition, Distribution, Origin and Potential Hazard of Natural Hydrogen–Hydrocarbon Gases in Ore Deposits of the Khibiny and Lovozero Massifs: A Review. Minerals 2019, 9, 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/min9090535
Nivin VA. Occurrence Forms, Composition, Distribution, Origin and Potential Hazard of Natural Hydrogen–Hydrocarbon Gases in Ore Deposits of the Khibiny and Lovozero Massifs: A Review. Minerals. 2019; 9(9):535. https://doi.org/10.3390/min9090535
Chicago/Turabian StyleNivin, Valentin A. 2019. "Occurrence Forms, Composition, Distribution, Origin and Potential Hazard of Natural Hydrogen–Hydrocarbon Gases in Ore Deposits of the Khibiny and Lovozero Massifs: A Review" Minerals 9, no. 9: 535. https://doi.org/10.3390/min9090535