Next Article in Journal
Source-Reservoir Characteristics and Pore Evolution Model of the Lower Paleozoic Shales in the Neijiang–Rongchang Area, Sichuan Basin
Previous Article in Journal
Editorial for Special Issue “Advances in Flotation of Copper, Lead and Zinc Minerals”
Previous Article in Special Issue
Magmatic–Hydrothermal Processes of the Pulang Giant Porphyry Cu (–Mo–Au) Deposit, Western Yunnan: A Perspective from Different Generations of Titanite
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Minerals
Volume 15
Issue 5
10.3390/min15050500
minerals-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Significance of Adakitic Plutons for Mineralization in Wubaduolai Copper Deposit, Xizang: Evidence from Zircon U-Pb Age, Hf Isotope, and Geochemistry

by
Ke Gao
1,
Zhi Zhang
1,*,
Linkui Zhang
1,
Peiyan Xu
1,*,
Yi Yang
2,
Jianyang Wu
1,
Yingxu Li
1,
Miao Sun
1 and
Wenpeng Su
3
1
Chengdu Center, China Geological Survey (Geoscience Innovation Center of Southwest China), Chengdu 610218, China
2
College of Engineering, Tibet University, Lhasa 850000, China
3
Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2025, 15(5), 500; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15050500
Submission received: 15 April 2025 / Revised: 3 May 2025 / Accepted: 5 May 2025 / Published: 8 May 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal History and Preservation Mechanisms of Porphyry-Cu Deposits: Evidence from Thermochronology, Mineral and Isotopic Geochemistry)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The Wubaduolai copper deposit, a newly discovered porphyry-type deposit located in the western section of the Gangdese metallogenic belt, shows great potential for mineralization. Investigating the ore-bearing potentiality of the adakitic granite in this area is crucial for identifying concealed ore bodies and assessing the metallogenic potential. This paper presents the zircon U-Pb dating, Hf isotope analysis, and whole-rock major and trace geochemical analysis of the plutons in the Wubaduolai mining area. The results indicate that the zircon U-Pb concordia age of the monzogranite is 15.7 ± 0.1 Ma, while the granodiorite porphyry has a concordia age of 15.9 ± 0.2 Ma, both corresponding to a Miocene diagenesis. The geochemical data show that both plutons belong to the high-K calc-alkaline series, characterized by a relative enrichment of large-ion lithophile elements (K, Rb, Ba, and Sr) and a depletion of high-field-strength elements (Nb, Ta, and Ti). Both plutons are characterized by low Y, low Yb, and high Sr/Y values, displaying the typical geochemical characteristics of adakites. Their mineral composition is similar to that of adakite. The εHf(t) values of the monzogranite and granodiorite porphyry range from −5.34 to −2.3 and −5.2 to −3.43, respectively, with two-stage model ages (TDM2) of 1246–1441 Ma and 1318–1432 Ma. Based on the regional data and this study, the plutons in the Wubaduolai mining area formed in a post-collision setting following the India–Asia continental collision. The magma source is identified as the partial melting of a thickened, newly formed lower crust. The above characteristics are consistent with the diagenetic and metallogenic ages, magma source, and dynamic backgrounds of the typical regional deposits.

1. Introduction

The India–Asia continental collision is generally divided into three phases: the main collision (65–41 Ma); the late collision (40–26 Ma); and the post-collision phase (25 Ma to present), which corresponds to the rapid uplift of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau [1]. The post-collision stage is the primary metallogenic period represented in the Gangdese metallogenic belt, primarily forming porphyry copper deposits, skarn-type and hydrothermal lead–zinc–silver deposits, hydrothermal vein-type gold–antimony deposits, and hot spring-type cesium–gold deposits (Figure 1) [2]. Among these, the porphyry copper deposits are the most significant, distributed primarily along the Gangdese tectonic–magmatic arc belt, with the southern margin being the most developed, forming the Gangdese metallogenic belt [2]. These porphyry copper deposits hold vast reserves and possess world-class exploration potential, attracting significant attention from geologists worldwide.
The Gangdese metallogenic belt is the region with the largest proven copper resources and metallogenic potential in Tibet, and is an important resource base for China [3,4,5]. Currently, the large deposits are diverse, including the typical types, such as the porphyry–skarn type (Jiama Cu-Au deposit [6,7]), porphyry type (Xiongcun Cu deposit [8,9,10]), skarn type (Nuri Cu-W-Mo deposit [11,12,13,14]), epithermal low-temperature hydrothermal type (Luobuzhen Au-Ag deposit [15,16]), breccia pipe type (Naruo Sondo Pb-Zn deposit [17,18]), and hydrothermal vein type (Jigongcun Re deposit [19]). Therefore, it is evident that the large deposits in the Gangdese metallogenic belt are mainly concentrated in the eastern segment, with their metallogenic ages in the Miocene. In contrast, only the Zhunuo deposit in the western segment reaches a large scale, with the adjacent Beimulang mining area also showing promising exploration results.
The Wubaduolai mining area is located within the Zhunuo ore-concentrated area, where porphyry copper deposits, such as those at Zhunuo, Beimulang, and Dingyang, have been discovered on the eastern side, indicating the significant exploration potential of the region (Figure 1b). Both surface and drilling surveys have identified mineralization and low-grade ore bodies of varying thicknesses in the Wubaduolai mining area. However, the mineralization process and the metallogenic potential of the plutons in the Wubaduolai mining area remain poorly understood. Understanding the mineralization potential of the intermediate–acidic plutons is vital for guiding the future exploration of the concealed deposits. Therefore, this paper conducts zircon U-Pb dating, and an Hf isotope and petrogeochemical analysis of the intermediate–acidic plutons of the Wubaduolai copper deposit to determine the emplacement age and metallogenic characteristics of the plutons, aiming to explore the magma source area and assess its mineralization potential.

2. Geological Background

The Gangdese tectonic–magmatic belt is divided into three sections: the southern, central, and northern Gangdese belts [20]. Situated north of the Yarlung–Tsangpo suture zone, the Gangdese metallogenic belt spans half of the Gangdese magmatic arc, predominantly covering parts of the southern and central regions. The metallogenic processes of this arc were primarily driven by the northward subduction of the Neo-Tethyan oceanic crust beneath the Yarlung Tsangpo River and the orogenic activity associated with the India–Asia continental collision [21,22]. During the post-collision stage (<40 Ma), a large number of Miocene adakitic rocks and ultrapotassic volcanic rocks were formed [23,24]. Simultaneously, large-scale porphyry copper mineralization events, represented by the Zhunuo and Julong–Jiama ore-concentrated area, occurred.
The Zhunuo ore-concentrated area is located along the southern edge of the Gangdese metallogenic belt, and the metallogenic potential area is at the westernmost part of the metallogenic belt. The exposed volcanic rock strata in this area mainly belong to the Linzizong Group, which, from bottom to top, includes the Dianzhong Formation, the Nianbo Formation, and the Pana Formation. The fault in the ore-concentrated area is well developed, mainly featuring northeast-, near east–west-, and near north–south-oriented faults, with the northeast faults being the main ones. The exposed plutons in the area are primarily biotite monzogranite, monzogranite, granodiorite, and granodiorite porphyry.
The Wubaduolai copper deposit lies in the western segment of the Gangdese metallogenic belt (Figure 1b), and is part of the Zhunuo ore-concentration area. The exposed strata in this area mainly consist of volcanic rocks from the Linzizong Group, including crystal tuff from the Eocene Nianbo Formation, and ignimbrite and dacite from the Eocene Pana Formation. The plutons are primarily granodiorite porphyry, granite porphyry, monzogranite, and diorite porphyry, with the main ore bodies located in the granodiorite porphyry. Malachite mineralization can be observed on the surface, with the mineralized rocks comprising crystal tuff and granodiorite porphyry.
Minerals 15 00500 g001
Figure 1. (a) Geotectonic location map, (b) distribution map of granite and deposits, Gangdese metallogenic belt ((a) modified after [25]).
Figure 1. (a) Geotectonic location map, (b) distribution map of granite and deposits, Gangdese metallogenic belt ((a) modified after [25]).
Minerals 15 00500 g001

3. Petrography

Samples of the monzogranite and granodiorite porphyry were collected from outcrops of the pluton, with the sampling locations shown in Figure 2. The monzogranite intrudes into the Eocene Pana Group volcanic strata as dikes, extending east–west with a smaller north–south width. No significant mineralization was observed on the surface of this pluton, which showed weak alteration, mostly in the form of weak potassic alteration (Figure 3a,b). The mineral composition of the monzogranite mainly includes quartz (20%–23%), K-feldspar (22%–24%), plagioclase (38%–42%), amphibole (2%–3%), and biotite (<2%), with zircon and apatite as accessory minerals (Figure 3c,d).
The granodiorite porphyry sample was collected from a copper ore body, where the mineralized pluton exhibited strong potassic, chloritic, and argillic alterations, with visible malachite on the weathered surface. The selected sample, however, showed a weaker alteration, with only a weak potassic alteration. The pluton consists mainly of phenocrysts and a matrix (Figure 3e,f), with the phenocrysts making up about 26%–29% of the pluton, including quartz (12%) and plagioclase (13%), and the remainder consisting of K-feldspar, amphibole, and biotite. The matrix is composed mainly of quartz, feldspar, and other felsic minerals (Figure 3e,f).

4. Analytical Methods

4.1. Zircon U-Pb Dating

Zircon U-Pb dating was completed by Wuhan Sample Solution Analytical Technology Co., Ltd., in Hubei, China. New Wave Research (NWR) laser ablation was used, with laser spot size and frequency of 30 µm and 6 Hz, respectively, and laser energy density of 3.5 J/cm2. Laser sampling was performed using a GeolasPro laser ablation system that consisted of a COMPexPro 102 ArF excimer laser and a MicroLas optical system. An Agilent 7900 ICP-MS instrument (Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA) was used to acquire ion-signal intensities. The spot size and frequency of the laser were set to 30 µm and 6 Hz in this study, respectively, and Zircon 91500 and glass NIST610 served as external standards for U-Pb dating and trace element calibration, respectively [26]. An Excel-based software, ICPMSDataCal, 10 was used to perform off-line selection and integration of background and analyzed signals, time-drift correction, and quantitative calibration for trace element analysis and U-Pb dating [27].

4.2. Zircon Lu-Hf Isotope

The zircon Lu-Hf isotope tests were conducted by Wuhan Sample Solution Analytical Technology Co., Ltd., in Wuhan Hubei, China. The testing utilized a Neptune laser ablation multiple-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (LA-MC-ICP-MS) and a 193 nm ARF excimer laser ablation system. The laser spot diameter was set to 50 μm with a frequency of 9 Hz. Single-point analysis mode was employed, and data acquisition lasted for 30 s. εHf(t) values were calculated using zircon U-Pb ages, with the decay constant of 176Lu taken as λ = 1.867 × 10−11 y [28]. The average continental crust value of 176Lu/177Hf = 0.015 [29] was used to compute the Hf isotope crustal model ages. In order to ensure the reliability of the analysis data, three international zircon standards—Plešovice, 91500, and GJ-1—were analyzed simultaneously with the actual samples. Plešovice was used for external standard calibration to further optimize the analysis and test results. The standards 91500 and GJ-1 were used as the second standard to monitor the quality of data correction.

4.3. Whole-Rock Major and Trace Element Analyses

Whole-rock geochemical analysis was conducted at the Chengdu Geological Survey Center of the China Geological Survey. Major elements were analyzed using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy with a PANalytical Axios instrument. The sample powder was mixed with Li2B4O7 and heated to approximately 1200 °C in a fusion machine to create a homogeneous glass bead for XRF analysis. Trace elements were analyzed using an Agilent 7700X inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS). The sample powder was placed in a Teflon cup, treated with HF and HNO3, dried, and then tested with 3% HNO3 added. Data correction was performed using the theoretical alpha coefficient method, achieving a relative standard deviation (RSD) of less than 2%.

5. Results

5.1. Zircon U–Pb Geochronology

The results of the zircon U-Pb dating analysis are presented in Table 1. The zircons from both plutons are primarily short prismatic crystals, ranging from 90 to 200 μm in length, with a length-to-width ratio of 1 to 1.9. The crystals exhibit few face cracks. The U content of the zircons in the monzogranite (WB01) ranges from 365 to 843 ppm. The Th content ranges from 233 to 1405 ppm. The Th/U ratios range from 0.51 to 1.06 (Table 1). Although the zircon Th/U ratios cannot be used to distinguish the zircon types [30,31], the Cathodoluminescence images reveal typical magmatic zircon oscillatory zoning, which is distinct from that of metamorphic zircons [32] (Figure 4). A total of 22 analysis points were obtained, excluding six zircons due to low concordance. The concordia age of the remaining 16 zircons is 15.7 ± 0.1 Ma (Figure 5), suggesting that the pluton was emplaced during the Miocene.
For the granodiorite porphyry (WB02), the zircon U content ranges from 265 to 1151 ppm. The Th content ranges from 185 to 998 ppm. The Th/U ratios range from 0.48 to 1.27, all greater than 0.4 (Table 1), consistent with magmatic zircon characteristics. A total of 24 measurement points were taken, with four zircons excluded due to low concordance. The concordia age of the remaining 20 zircons is 15.9 ± 0.2 Ma (Figure 5), indicating that the granodiorite porphyry was also formed from Miocene magmatic activity. This age corresponds closely to the main porphyry copper mineralization period in the Zhunuo ore district (16–14 Ma).

5.2. Zircon Hf Isotope

The 176Lu/177Hf ratios of the zircons from the monzogranite and granodiorite porphyry rang from 0.000408 to 0.001069 and 0.00031 to 0.000891, respectively (Table 2). These low values indicate a minimal radiogenic decay of 176Lu into 177Hf after zircon formation, meaning that the initial values reflect the Hf isotopic composition at the time of zircon crystallization [33]. The monzogranite zircons have 176Hf/177Hf values ranging from 0.282611 to 0.282697, with fLu/Hf values from −0.99 to −0.97, while the granodiorite porphyry zircons have 176Hf/177Hf values ranging from 0.282374 to 0.282671, with fLu/Hf values from −0.99 to −0.97. Both values are lower than the average fLu/Hf values for continental and mafic crusts (−0.55) [29,34]. Consequently, the two-stage model ages (TDM2) for these zircons reflect the time of material differentiation from the depleted mantle or the average crustal residence time of the source material [33]. The εHf(0) values of the zircons from the monzogranite range from −5.69 to −2.65, with εHf(t) values from −5.34 to −2.3. In the granodiorite porphyry, the εHf(0) values range from −5.55 to −3.57, and the εHf(t) values from −5.2 to −3.43 (Table 2). The two-stage model ages (TDM2) for the monzogranite and granodiorite porphyry zircons are 1246–1441 Ma and 1318–1432 Ma, respectively. One zircon (WB02-02) in the granodiorite porphyry exhibited significant internal Hf isotopic fluctuations, and thus its data were excluded from the analysis.

5.3. Major and Trace Element Compositions

The major and trace element compositions of the monzogranite and granodiorite porphyry from the Wubaduolai mining area are shown in Table 3. The loss on ignition (LOI) for both pluton types ranges from 0.78 wt.% to 1.36 wt.% (monzogranite) and 1.5 wt.% to 1.86 wt.% (granodiorite porphyry), indicating minimal alteration and weathering, with the granodiorite porphyry being slightly more altered. The SiO2 content of the monzogranite ranges from 66.14 wt.% to 66.75 wt.%, the Al2O3 from 15.47 wt.% to 15.70 wt.%, the K2O from 3.81 wt.% to 4.16 wt.%, the Na2O from 3.7 wt.% to 3.9 wt.%, the Fe2O3T from 3.14 wt.% to wt. 3.34%, the MgO from 1.47 wt.% to 1.58 wt.%, and the TiO2 from 0.52 wt.% to 0.56 wt.%, reflecting low silicon, high aluminum, and high alkalinity (Table 3). The SiO2 content of the granodiorite porphyry ranges from 66.6 wt.% to 67.31 wt.%, the Al2O3 from 15.48 wt.% to 16.49 wt.%, the K2O from 4 wt.% to 4.34 wt.%, the Na2O from 3.85 wt.% to 4.22 wt.%, the Fe2O3T from 2.97 wt.% to 3.15 wt.%, the MgO from 1.2 wt.% to 1.46 wt.%, and the TiO2 from 0.51 wt.% to 0.56 wt.%, generally characterized by low silicon and high alkalinity (Table 3). In the TAS diagram, both pluton types fall in the quartz syenite region, indicating a subalkaline series [36] (Figure 6a). The high potassium content in the granodiorite porphyry is mainly attributed to significant potassic alteration. The aluminum saturation index (A/CNK) ranges from 0.95 to 1.00 (monzogranite) and 1.16 to 1.22 (granodiorite porphyry). On the A/CNK-A/NK diagram, the monzogranite samples fall into the metaluminous field, while the granodiorite porphyry samples fall into the peraluminous field [37] (Figure 6b). The Rittmann index (σ) ranges from 2.46 to 2.62 (monzogranite) and 2.65 to 2.82 (granodiorite porphyry); all values are less than 3.3, indicating the calc-alkaline nature of these plutons [38]. The SiO2-K2O diagram shows that all the samples fall into the high-potassium calc-alkaline series [39] (Figure 6c).
The total rare earth element (REE) content of the monzogranite ranges from 147 to 157 ppm, with light-to-heavy REE ratios of 18.6 to 19.3 and LaN/YbN values of 32 to 33.8. The total REE content of the granodiorite porphyry ranges from 116 to 121 ppm, with light-to-heavy REE ratios of 15.2 to 22.3 and LaN/YbN values of 50.2 to 64.9. In the chondrite-normalized REE distribution diagram, all the samples show light REE enrichment and light negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.83–0.98), with the granodiorite porphyry showing more pronounced light-to-heavy REE differentiation (Figure 7a). In the primitive mantle-normalized spider diagram (Figure 7b), both rock types exhibit enrichment with large-ion lithophile elements (LILEs), such as K, Rb, Ba, and Sr, along with a relative depletion of high-field-strength elements (HFSEs), like Nb, Ta, and Ti, displaying typical adakitic characteristics. These findings suggest that both rock types likely share a common source.

6. Discussion

6.1. Diagenetic and Mineralization Age

Previous studies have indicated that most of the deposits in the southern margin of the Gangdese metallogenic belt formed during the Miocene in post-collisional orogenic environments [2,19,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51], while the deposits in the syn-collisional orogenic environments date to the Paleogene [52,53,54]. Large deposits generally form in post-collisional settings, while medium-to-small deposits tend to form in syn-collisional environments.
The zircon internal structure study of two plutons in the Wubaduolai copper mining area reveals typical rhythmic zoning (Figure 4), with the Th/U ratios exceeding 0.4, consistent with magmatic zircon characteristics [45,55]. The emplacement age of the monzogranite is 15.7 ± 0.1 Ma, corresponding to a post-collisional environment within the metallogenic belt. The granodiorite porphyry’s emplacement age is 15.9 ± 0.2 Ma, aligning with the early mineralization phase of the Zhunuo ore-concentrated area, suggesting the ore-bearing magma in Wubaduolai was emplaced around 16 Ma. The other porphyry-type copper deposits in the Zhunuo ore-concentrated area, including the Zhunuo, Beimulang, Hongshan, Zangmarang, Dingyang, and Cimabanshuo copper deposits, exhibit mineralization ages primarily between 13.5 and 16.2 Ma (Figure 8). The Hongshan copper deposit has the earliest mineralization age of 23.0 ± 2.0 Ma [16], followed by Cimabanshuo at 16.2 Ma [5]. The Re-Os ages of the molybdenite from the Zhunuo copper deposit range from 13.51 to 14.78 Ma [48,56], with a concentration of around 14 Ma. The mineralization age of the Beimulang deposit is 13.5 Ma, coinciding with that of Zhunuo in both time and space. The Zhunuo copper deposit, which has been extensively studied, shows zircon U-Pb ages of the ore-hosting rocks and coeval intrusions predominantly between 15 and 13 Ma [40,41,51,57]. The emplacement ages of the ore-bearing monzogranite and porphyry in the Beimulang copper deposit are between 15 and 14 Ma [58], while the Cima Ban Shuo copper deposit, southwest of Beimulang, has an emplacement age of around 16 Ma, with mineralization ages within the error margin of this timing [5,59]. The Hongshan copper deposit’s granodiorite porphyry emplacement age is 23.7 ± 0.1 Ma [16], close to its mineralization age. In this study, the emplacement ages of the plutons are slightly earlier than those of the Zhunuo and Beimulang deposits, and later than that of the Hongshan deposit. The emplacement–mineralization progression across the district spans from 23 Ma to 13 Ma. The prospecting results suggest an increasing deposit size and ore grade from west to east.

6.2. Petrogenesis

The granodiorite porphyry in Wubaduolai underwent potassic alteration, leading to higher A/CNK values than those of the monzogranite. Both rock phases exhibit characteristics of I-type granites, with a mineral composition primarily of quartz, potassium feldspar, plagioclase, amphibole, and small amounts of biotite, but no muscovite or cordierite, reinforcing their I-type nature. Both the monzogranite and granodiorite porphyry are rich in Sr (582–824 ppm), low in MgO (1.2–1.58 wt.%), low in Y (4.32–8.99 ppm), low in Yb (0.28–0.74 ppm), and show high Sr/Y (88.1–165.7) and La/Yb (44.7–90.4) ratios, along with a significant depletion of heavy rare earth elements and weak negative Eu anomalies (Table 3). These features are characteristic of adakitic plutons, and the geochemical diagrams confirm that both rock phases fall within the adakitic range [43] (Figure 6d). The geochemical profiles of the monzogranite and granodiorite porphyry in Wubaduolai closely resemble those from the Zhunuo and Beimulang districts [40,41,58], suggesting similar magmatic sources and emplacement processes. The adakitic plutons in the Gangdese metallogenic belt, with emplacement ages between 23 and 10 Ma, are closely associated with porphyry deposits [61,62]. The genesis of the adakitic rocks in the Gangdese belt has been attributed to several mechanisms, including the following: (1) the partial melting of subducted Tethyan oceanic crust remnants [63,64]; (2) the partial melting of a newly formed lower crust [65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72]; (3) the partial melting of mantle peridotite [69,73,74]; and (4) the mixing of felsic and mafic magmas [75].
The emplacement ages of the monzogranite (15.7 ± 0.1 Ma) and granodiorite porphyry (15.9 ± 0.2 Ma) in Wubaduolai, occurring in a post-collisional setting, do not support a model involving the partial melting of subducted oceanic crust following a slab break-off. The MgO content of these rocks (1.2–1.58 wt.%) is much lower than that of adakitic rocks formed by the mixing of felsic and basaltic magmas (MgO > 4.5 wt.%) [76], indicating a different genesis. Moreover, mantle peridotite, a primary source for basaltic magma, is not suitable for the formation of acidic magmatic rocks. The trace element patterns of Th, La, Sm, and Nd suggest partial melting rather than fractional crystallization [77]. The geochemical diagrams show that both rock phases in Wubaduolai formed through the partial melting of magma (Figure 9a,b). In the MgO-SiO2 diagram (Figure 9c), samples from both rock phases align with the adakitic rock field for lower-crust sources, overlapping with the Zhunuo mineralizing rock bodies, indicating a shared lower-crustal origin. The major element diagrams suggest that both rock phases formed through the partial melting of amphibolite facies materials, consistent with their geochemical characteristics [78] (Figure 9d). The zircon Hf isotopic data, excluding one point with significant internal variation from the granodiorite porphyry, show that most of the samples from both rock phases fall within the enriched mantle region, with the εHf(t) values ranging from −5.34 to −2.3. This indicates that the emplacement involved substantial crustal material, primarily from the newly formed lower crust, consistent with the Zhunuo deposit’s characteristics (Figure 10).
In conclusion, the magmatic source of the two plutons in Wubaduolai is likely the thickened, newly formed lower crust, with their emplacement primarily resulting from the partial melting of amphibolite facies materials, forming adakitic monzogranite and granodiorite porphyry in favorable structural positions.

6.3. Magmatism and Mineralization

Despite the well-established relationship between porphyry copper deposits and adakitic magmatism [83], not all adakitic plutons are mineralized. Therefore, the mineralization potential of adakitic magmas has been a focal point of ore deposit research [84,85,86]. The source of ore in porphyry copper deposits is closely linked to the parent rock of mineralization [87,88]. The composition of the ore-forming elements and the mechanisms of mineral precipitation are related to the magmatic evolution process. The east–west zonal distribution and north–south beaded distribution pattern of the porphyry deposits in the Gangdese metallogenic belt align with the timing of the north–south-trending normal faults, and this suggests that the emplacement of the parent rock was mainly controlled by these fault channels in a post-collisional extensional environment [89,90,91,92]. Most of the porphyry-type deposits in the Gangdese metallogenic belt are associated with Miocene adakitic plutons [93]. The diagenesis age of the post-collisional adakitic plutons ranges from 25 to 10 Ma, with a concentration of 15 ± 2 Ma [24,91,94,95]. The mineralized intrusions of porphyry copper deposits are primarily adakitic bodies, with crystallization ages concentrated between 20 and 12 Ma, with an average concentration of 16 ± 1 Ma [96,97]. The diagenesis and mineralization ages are essentially consistent. The adakitic plutons are closely related to mineralization in both time and space, with water-rich, high-oxygen-fugacity magmas being particularly conducive to the formation of porphyry deposits [86,98]. In high-oxygen-fugacity environments, sulfur exists in the melt mainly as SO2 and SO42−, allowing the active Cu and Au to be transported in an unsaturated state with the magma or fluid to the mineralization front [83,99]. The water-rich nature of the magmatic melt is also critical for adakite-related mineralization, as a higher water content enhances the upward migration and fluid exsolution of Cu-bearing sulfides, promoting the precipitation and mineralization of Cu, Au, and other minerals [98,100,101,102,103,104].
In the Gangdese metallogenic belt, the Miocene barren plutons exhibit relatively lower whole-rock εNd(t) and zircon εHf(t) values compared to the mineralized plutons. This suggests that the ore-barren plutons primarily originated from ancient crustal material. In contrast, the mineralized porphyries contain more amphibole phenocrysts [94], which indicates the importance of amphibole for the water content of the mineralizing magmas [105,106]. Under water-rich conditions, Nb is more likely to be hosted in amphibole, while Ti is hosted in rutile [91]. The geochemical characteristics of the intrusions in the Wubaduolai area suggest the presence of residual rutile and amphibole in the magmatic source. Both plutons contain amphibole, with the granite diorite porphyry showing the most prominent amphibole phenocrysts, suggesting a higher water content in both phases. Additionally, the zircon εHf(t) values imply that the magmatic source was primarily derived from juvenile lower crust and mantle material rather than ancient basement, providing favorable conditions for the formation of high-oxygen-fugacity, water-rich magmas. The trace element geochemistry further supports the presence of residual amphibole and rutile in the source, which is more likely to have been a garnet amphibolite facies [107]. This highlights the water-rich nature of the intrusions. The adakitic plutons in the Wubaduolai area formed from partial melting of the lower crust, with the ore-forming elements enriched in water-rich, high-oxygen-fugacity adakitic plutons. These mineralized magmas ascended to shallower levels, where the ore minerals combined with volatiles to precipitate and form deposits [108]. In the Early Miocene, mantle-derived magma intruded into the thickened juvenile lower crust, causing partial melting of the garnet–amphibolite facies. The above process led to the formation of adakitic magma that is rich in water, minerals, and alkalis. During its upward intrusion, the adakitic magma formed adakitic plutons and ore in favorable ore-forming locations (Figure 11).

7. Conclusions

(1)
The zircon U-Pb geochronology indicates that the emplacement ages of the monzogranite and granodiorite porphyry in the Wubaduolai mining area are both 15–16 Ma, corresponding to the Miocene epoch. The geochemical analysis shows that these plutons are low in silicon, high in aluminum, and alkali-rich, with high Sr/Y ratios and low Yb and Y contents, exhibiting typical adakitic pluton geochemistry. These features are similar to those of the adakitic plutons associated with the mineralization periods of the Zhunuo and Beimulang porphyry copper deposits, suggesting a shared source region and petrogenetic process.
(2)
The chronological, petrological, and isotopic geochemical characteristics of the two plutons suggest that their magma primarily originated from the partial melting of the lower crust. This is consistent with the petrogenesis and source regions of the adakitic plutons associated with the major porphyry-type deposits in the Gangdese metallogenic belt.
(3)
The adakitic plutons in the Wubaduolai mining area primarily formed in a post-collision extensional setting, where the underplating of mafic magma rich in ore-forming materials caused the partial melting of the juvenile lower crust. The ore-forming elements were concentrated in the water-rich, high-oxygen-fugacity adakitic magma. This ore-bearing magma ascended along regional fault channels, eventually emplacing and mineralizing at favorable structural locations within the Wubaduolai mining area.

Author Contributions

Writing—original draft, K.G. and Z.Z.; resources, K.G.; conceptualization, Z.Z.; supervision, Z.Z. and P.X.; writing—review and editing, L.Z. and P.X.; investigation, Y.Y., J.W., Y.L., M.S. and W.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by a Deep Earth Probe and Mineral Resources Exploration—National Science and Technology Major Project (2024ZD100320703 and 2024ZD1003205), the Central Guidance Fund for Local Science and Technology Development Projects (XZ202301YD0030C), and China Geological Survey Projects (DD20242518, DD20240069, and DD20242103).

Data Availability Statement

The data are contained within this article.

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to the reviewers and scientific editor, whose constructive criticism and recommendations helped us to significantly rework and improve the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Hou, Z.Q.; Mo, X.X.; Yang, Z.M.; Wang, A.J.; Pan, G.T.; Qu, X.M.; Nie, F.J. Metallogeneses in the collisional orogen of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau: Tectonic setting, tempo-spatial distribution and ore deposit types. Geol. China 2006, 33, 340–351. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  2. Hou, Z.Q.; Qu, X.M.; Yang, Z.S.; Meng, X.J.; Li, Z.Q.; Yang, Z.M.; Zheng, M.P.; Zheng, Y.Y.; Nie, F.J.; Gao, Y.F.; et al. Metallogenesis in Tibetan collisional orogenic belt: Ⅲ. mineralization in post-collisional extension setting. Miner. Depos. 2006, 25, 629–651. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  3. Tang, J.X.; Wang, Q.; Yang, H.H.; Gao, X.; Zhang, Z.B.; Zou, B. Mineralization, exploration and resource potential of porphyry-skarn-epithermal copper polymetallic deposits in Tibet. Acta Geosci. Sin. 2017, 38, 571–613. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  4. Tang, J.X.; Yang, H.H.; Song, Y.; Wang, L.Q.; Liu, Z.B.; Li, B.L.; Lin, B.; Peng, B.; Wang, G.H.; Zeng, Q.G.; et al. The copper polymetallic deposits and resource potential in the Tibet Plateau. China Geol. 2021, 4, 1–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Zheng, Y.Y.; Ci, Q.; Gao, S.B.; Wu, S.; Jiang, X.J.; Chen, X. The Ag-Sn-Cu polymetallic minerogenetic series and prospecting direction in the western Gangdese belt, Tibet. Earth Sci. Front. 2021, 28, 379–402. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Tang, J.X.; Deng, S.L.; Zheng, W.B.; Ying, L.J.; Wang, X.W.; Zhong, K.H.; Qin, Z.P.; Ding, F.; Li, F.J.; Tang, X.Q.; et al. An exploration model for Jiama copper polymetallic deposit in Maizhokunggar County, Tibet. Miner. Depos. 2011, 30, 179–196. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Zheng, W.B.; Tang, J.X.; Zhong, K.H.; Ying, L.J.; Leng, Q.F.; Ding, S.; Lin, B. Geology of the Jiama porphyry copper–polymetallic system, Lhasa Region, China. Ore Geol. Rev. 2016, 74, 151–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Tang, J.X.; Lang, X.H.; Xie, F.W.; Gao, Y.M.; Li, Z.J.; Huang, Y.; Ding, F.; Yang, H.H.; Zhang, L.; Wang, Q. Geological characteristics and genesis of the Jurassic No. I porphyry Cu-Au deposit in the Xiongcun district, Gangdese porphyry copper belt, Tibet. Ore Geol. Rev. 2015, 70, 438–456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Lang, X.H.; Wang, X.H.; Deng, Y.L.; Tang, J.X.; Jiang, K. Hydrothermal evolution and ore precipitation of the No. 2 porphyry Cu–Au deposit in the Xiongcun district, Tibet: Evidence from cathodoluminescence, fluid inclusions, and isotopes. Ore Geol. Rev. 2019, 114, 103141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Lang, X.H.; Deng, Y.L.; Wang, X.H.; Tang, J.X.; Xie, F.W.; Yang, Z.Y.; Yin, Q.; Jiang, K. Reduced fluids in porphyry copper-gold systems reflect the occurrence of the wall-rock thermogenic process: An example from the No.1 deposit in the Xiongcun district, Tibet, China. Ore Geol. Rev. 2020, 118, 103212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Yan, G.Q.; Wang, X.X.; Huang, Y.; Liu, H.; Huang, H.X.; Tian, E.Y.; Lai, Y.; Zhao, J. Evolution characteristics of magma in the Nuri superlarge polymetallic deposit, Tibet: Implications for regional mineralization in the Shannan ore cluster area. Acta Geol. Sin. 2018, 92, 2138–2154. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Chen, L.; Qin, K.Z.; Li, G.M.; Li, J.X.; Xiao, B.; Zhao, J.X. In situ major and trace elements of garnet and scheelite in the Nuri Cu–W–Mo deposit, South Gangdese, Tibet: Implications for mineral genesis and ore-forming fluid records. Ore Geol. Rev. 2020, 122, 103549. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Wu, Z.S.; Tang, L.W.; Basang, Y.D.; Chen, W.Q.; Chen, B.; Du, Q.A.; Hou, H.F.; Miao, H.Y. In situ trace-element and Sr isotopic characteristics of scheelite and their implications for the genesis in the Nuri Cu-W-Mo deposit, Xizang. Sediment. Geol. Tethyan Geol. 2024, 44, 723–739. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Wang, Y.Y.; Wu, Z.S.; Chen, W.Q.; Du, Q.A.; Tang, L.W.; Shi, H.Z.; Ma, G.T.; Zhang, Z.; Liang, W.; Wu, B.; et al. Genesis of the Nuri Cu-W-Mo Deposit, Tibet, China: Constraints from in situ Trace Elements and Sr Isotopic Analysis of Scheelite. Acta Geol. Sin. 2024, 98, 117–131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Sun, X.; Zheng, Y.Y.; Li, M.; Ouyang, H.T.; Liu, Q.Q.; Jing, X.K.; Sun, G.P.; Song, Q.J. Genesis of Luobuzhen Pb–Zn veins: Implications for porphyry Cu systems and exploration targeting at Luobuzhen-Dongshibu in western Gangdese belt, southern Tibet. Ore Geol. Rev. 2017, 82, 252–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Huang, H.X.; Liu, H.; Li, G.X.; Zhang, L.K.; Cao, H.W.; Zhou, Q.; Wang, X.X.; Yan, G.Q. Zircon U-Pb, Molybdenite Re-Os and Quartz Vein Rb-Sr Geochronology of the Luobuzhen Au-Ag and Hongshan Cu Deposits, Tibet, China: Implications for the Oligocene-Miocene Porphyry–Epithermal Metallogenic System. Minerals 2019, 9, 476. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Yang, Y.; Luo, T.Y.; Huang, Z.L.; Yang, Z.S.; Tian, S.H.; Qian, Z.K. Sulfur and Lead isotope compositions of the Narusongduo silver zinc-lead deposit in Tibet: Implications for the sources of plutons and metals in the deposit. Acta Mineral. Sin. 2010, 30, 311–318. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Ji, X.H.; Meng, X.J.; Yang, Z.S.; Zhang, Q.; Tian, S.H.; Li, Z.Q.; Liu, Y.C.; Yu, Y.S. The Ar-Ar geochronology of sericite from the cryptoexplosive breccia type Pb-Zn deposit in Narusongduo, Tibet and its geological significance. Geol. Explor. 2014, 50, 281–290. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Zhang, Z.; Li, G.M.; Yang, Y.; Zhang, L.K.; Lian, T.R.; Huang, Y.; Li, Y.B.; Dong, S.L. Genesis of the Jigongcun Re-rich quartz vein-type Mo deposit, southern Tibet: Constraints from mineralogy, fluid inclusions, geochronology, H–O–S isotopes, and in situ trace element compositions of molybdenite. Ore Geol. Rev. 2021, 132, 104069. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Zhu, D.C.; Zhao, Z.D.; Niu, Y.; Mo, X.X.; Chung, S.L.; Hou, Z.Q.; Wang, L.Q.; Wu, F.Y. The Lhasa Terrane: Record of a microcontinent and its histories of drift and growth. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2011, 301, 241–255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Luo, Z.H.; Mo, X.X.; Hou, Z.Q. The mantle-crust interactions during continental collision process of the plateau and their effects on the formation of mineral resources and oil-gas pools. In Uplifting of Tibetan Plateau with Its Environmental Effects; Zheng, D., Yao, T.D., Eds.; Science Press: Beijing, China, 2004; pp. 117–163. [Google Scholar]
  22. Hou, Z.Q.; Meng, X.J.; Qu, X.M.; Gao, Y.F. Copper ore potential of adakitic intrusives in Gangdese porphyry copper belt: Constrains from rock phase and deep melting process. Miner. Depos. 2005, 24, 108–121. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  23. Yang, Z.M.; Lu, Y.J.; Hou, Z.Q.; Chang, Z.S. High-Mg Diorite from Qulong in Southern Tibet: Implications for the Genesis of Adakite-like Intrusions and Associated Porphyry Cu Deposits in Collisional Orogens. J. Petrol. 2015, 56, 227–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Chung, S.L.; Liu, D.Y.; Ji, J.Q.; Chu, M.F.; Lee, H.Y.; Wen, D.J.; Lo, C.H.; Lee, T.Y.; Qian, Q.; Zhang, Q. Adakites from continental collision zones: Melting of thickened lower crust beneath southern Tibet. Geology 2003, 31, 1021–1024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Pan, G.T.; Wang, L.Q.; Li, R.S.; Yuan, S.H.; Ji, W.H.; Yin, F.G.; Zhang, W.P.; Wang, B.D. Tectonic evolution of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. J. Asian Earth Sci. 2012, 53, 3–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Hu, Z.C.; Li, X.H.; Luo, T. Tanz zircon megacrysts: A new zircon reference material for the microbeam determination of U–Pb ages and Zr–O isotopes. J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 2021, 36, 2715–2734. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Liu, Y.S.; Hu, Z.C.; Gao, S.; Gunther, D.; Xu, J.; Gao, C.G.; Chen, H.H. In situ analysis of major and trace elements of anhydrous minerals by LA-ICP-MS without applying an internal standard. Chem. Geol. 2008, 257, 34–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Söderlund, U.; Patchett, P.J.; Vervoort, J.D.; Isachsen, C.E. The 176Lu decay constant determined by Lu–Hf and U–Pb isotope systematics of Precambrian mafic intrusions. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2004, 219, 311–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Griffin, W.L.; Wang, X.; Jackson, S.E.; Pearson, N.J.; O’Reilly, S.Y.; Xu, X.S.; Zhou, X.M. Zircon chemistry and magma mixing, SE china: In-situ analysis of Hf isotopes, Tonglu and Pingtan igneous complexes. Lithos 2002, 61, 237–269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Yakymchuk, C.; Kirkland, C.L.; Clark, C. Th/U ratios in metamorphic zircon. J. Metamorph. Geol. 2018, 36, 715–737. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Kirkland, C.L.; Smithies, R.H.; Taylor, R.J.M.; Evans, N.; McDonald, B. Zircon Th/U ratios in magmatic environs. Lithos 2015, 212–215, 397–414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Wu, Y.B.; Zheng, Y.F. Genesis of zircon and its constraints on interpretation of U-Pb age. Chin. Sci. Bull. 2004, 49, 1554–1569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Wu, F.Y.; Li, X.H.; Zheng, Y.F.; Gao, S. Lu-Hf isotopic systematics and their applications in petrology. Acta Petrol. Sin. 2007, 23, 185–220. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  34. Amelin, Y.; Lee, D.C.; Halliday, A.N.; Pidgeon, R.T. Nature of the Earth’s earliest crust from hafnium isotopes in single detrital zircons. Nature 1999, 399, 1497–1503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Blichert-Toft, J.; Albarède, F. The Lu-Hf isotope geochemistry of chondrites and the evolution of the mantle-crust system. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1998, 148, 243–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Middlemost, E.A.K. Naming materials in the magma/igneous rock system. Earth-Sci. Rev. 1994, 37, 215–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Maniar, P.D.; Piccoli, P.M. Tectonic discrimination of granitoids. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 1989, 101, 635–643. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Rittmann, A. Volcanoes and Their Activity; Wiley: New York, NY, USA, 1962. [Google Scholar]
  39. Peccerillo, A.; Taylor, S.R. Geochemistry of eocene calc-alkaline volcanic rocks from the Kastamonu area, Northern Turkey. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 1976, 58, 63–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Huang, Y.; Ding, J.; Li, G.M.; Dai, J.; Yan, G.Q.; Wang, G.; Liu, X.F. U-Pb Dating, Hf Isotopic Characteristics of Zircons from Intrusions in the Zhuluo Porphyry Cu-Mo-Au Deposit and Its Mineralization Significance. Acta Geol. Sin. 2015, 89, 99–108. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Wu, S. The Super-Large Zhunuo Porphyry Cu Deposit in the Gangdese Belt, Southern Tibet: Magmatism and Mineralization. Ph.D. Thesis, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, China, 2016. (In Chinese). [Google Scholar]
  42. Middlemost, E.A.K. Magmas and Magmatic Rocks: An Introduction to Igneous Petrology; Longman: London, UK; New York, NY, USA, 1985; pp. 1–266. [Google Scholar]
  43. Defant, M.J.; Drummond, M.S. Derivation of some modern arc magmas by melting of young subducted lithosphere. Nature 1990, 347, 662–665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Sun, S.S.; McDonough, W.F. Chemical and isotopic systematics of oceanic basalts: Implications for mantle composition and processes. Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ. 1989, 42, 313–345. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Möller, A.; O’Brien, P.J.; Kennedy, A.; Kröner, A. Linking growth episodes of zircon and metamorphic textures to zircon chemistry: An example from the ultrahigh-temperature granulites of Rogaland (SW Norway). Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ. 2003, 220, 65–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Chen, L.; Qin, K.Z.; Li, G.M.; Li, J.X.; Xiao, B.; Zhao, J.X.; Fan, X. Sm–Nd and Ar–Ar isotopic dating of the Nuri Cu–W–Mo deposit in the Southern Gangdese, Tibet: Implications for the porphyry-skarn metallogenic system and metallogenetic epochs of the Eastern Gangdese. Resour. Geol. 2016, 66, 259–273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Meng, X.J.; Hou, Z.Q.; Gao, Y.F.; Huang, W.; Qu, X.M. Re-Os dating for molybdenite from Qulong porphyry copper deposit in Gangdese metallogenic belt, Xizang and its metallogenic significance. Geol. Rev. 2003, 49, 660–666. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Zheng, Y.Y.; Zhang, G.Y.; Xu, R.K.; Gao, S.B.; Pang, Y.C.; Cao, L.; Du, A.D.; Shi, Y.R. Geochronologic constraints on magmatic intrusions and mineralization of the Zhunuo porphyry copper deposit in Gangdese, Tibet. Chin. Sci. Bull. 2007, 52, 3139–3147. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Ying, L.J.; Wang, C.H.; Tang, J.X.; Wang, D.H.; Qu, W.J.; Li, C. Re–Os systematics of sulfides (chalcopyrite, bornite, pyrite and pyrrhotite) from the Jiama Cu–Mo deposit of Tibet, China. J. Asian Earth Sci. 2014, 79, 497–506. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Li, Y.; Selby, D.; Feely, M.; Costanzo, A.; Li, X.H. Fluid inclusion characteristics and molybdenite Re-Os geochronology of the Qulong porphyry copper-molybdenum deposit, Tibet. Miner. Depos. 2017, 52, 137–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Sun, X.; Leng, C.B.; Hollings, P.; Song, Q.J.; Li, R.Y.; Wan, X.Q. New 40Ar/39Ar and (U-Th)/He dating for the Zhunuo porphyry Cu deposit, Gangdese belt, southern Tibet: Implications for pulsed magmatic-hydrothermal processes and ore exhumation and preservation. Miner. Depos. 2021, 56, 917–934. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Gong, F.Z.; Zhang, H.P.; Zhang, G.Y. The Jiru porphyry copper deposit in Tibet: The 50 Ma ore-bearing intrusion-constraints from zircon La-ICP-MS U-Pb geochronology. Miner. Depos. 2010, 29, 439–440. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Gong, F.Z.; Zheng, Y.; Zhang, G.Y.; Qu, W.J. The first discovery of porphyry copper deposits formed during the main Indian-Tibetan collision in Gangdisê, Tibet: Constraints from Re-Os ages for molybdenite from the Jyiru porphyry copper deposit. Acta Geol. Sichuan 2008, 28, 296–299. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  54. Yu, Y.S.; Yang, Z.S.; Duo, J.; Hou, Z.Q.; Tian, S.; Meng, X.J.; Liu, H.F.; Zhang, J.S.; Wang, H.P.; Liu, Y.C. Age and petrogenesis of magmatic rocks from Jiaduobule skarn Fe-Cu deposit in Tibet: Evidence from zircon SHRIMP U-Pb dating, Hf isotope and REE. Miner. Depos. 2011, 30, 420–434. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Rubatto, D.; Gebauer, D. Use of cathodoluminescence for U-Pb zircon dating by ion microprobe: Some examples from high-pressure rocks of the Western Alps. In Cathodoluminescence in Geoscience; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2000; pp. 373–400. [Google Scholar]
  56. Sun, X.; Hollings, P.; Lu, Y. Geology and origin of the Zhunuo porphyry copper deposit, Gangdese belt, southern Tibet. Miner. Depos. 2021, 56, 457–480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Dai, J. Metallogenesis of Zhunuo Porphyry Cu (Mo-Au) Deposit, Angren, Tibet, China. Ph.D. Thesis, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu, China, 2017. (In Chinese). [Google Scholar]
  58. Liu, P.; Wu, S.; Zheng, Y.Y.; Wang, X.Y.; Kang, Y.M.; Yan, J.; Gu, Y.; Liu, X.F.; Gong, F.Z.; Zhao, Y.Y.; et al. Geology and factors controlling the formation of the newly discovered Beimulang porphyry Cu deposit in the western Gangdese, southern Tibet. Ore Geol. Rev. 2022, 144, 104823. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Li, J.Z.; Wu, S.; Lin, Y.B.; Jiang, Z.Y.; Yi, J.Z.; Jiang, G.W.; Liu, X.F.; Hua, K.; Ci, Q.; Zhao, Y.Y. Alteration-mineralization style and prospecting potential of Cimabanshuo porphyry copper deposit in Tibet. Earth Sci. 2022, 47, 2219–2244. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Ai, Y.M.; Xiao, B.; Zhao, J.F.; Ci, Q.; Zhao, Y.Y.; Zhao, J.X. Ages, petrogenesis and metallogenesis implications of the Miocene adakite-like igneous rocks in the Beimulang porphyry Cu Deposit, southern Tibet. Ore Geol. Rev. 2024, 173, 106249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Wang, B.D.; Xu, J.F.; Chen, J.L.; Zhang, X.G.; Wang, L.Q.; Xia, B.B. Petrogenesis and geochronology of the ore-bearing porphyritic rocks in Tangbula porphyry molybdenum-copper deposit in the eastern segment of the Gangdese metallogenic belt. Acta Petrol. Sin. 2010, 26, 1820–1832. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  62. Hou, Z.Q.; Zheng, Y.C.; Yang, Z.M.; Rui, Z.Y.; Zhao, Z.D.; Jiang, S.H.; Qu, X.M.; Sun, Q.Z. Contribution of mantle components within juvenile lower-crust to collisional zone porphyry Cu systems in Tibet. Miner. Depos. 2013, 48, 173–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Li, J.X.; Qin, K.Z.; Li, G.M.; Xiao, B.; Chen, L.; Zhao, J.X. Post-collisional ore-bearing adakitic porphyries from Gangdese porphyry copper belt, southern Tibet: Melting of thickened juvenile arc lower crust. Lithos 2011, 126, 265–277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Hu, Y.B.; Liu, J.Q.; Ling, M.X.; Ding, W.; Liu, Y.; Zartman, R.E.; Ma, X.F.; Liu, D.Y.; Zhang, C.C.; Sun, S.J. The formation of Qulong adakites and their relationship with porphyry copper deposit: Geochemical constraints. Lithos 2015, 220–223, 60–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Xu, J.F.; Shinjo, R.; Defant, M.J.; Wang, Q.; Rapp, R.P. Origin of Mesozoic adakitic intrusive rocks in the Ningzhen area of east China: Partial melting of delaminated lower continental crust? Geology 2002, 30, 1111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Chung, S.L.; Chu, M.F.; Ji, J.Q.; O Reilly, S.Y.; Pearson, N.J.; Liu, D.; Lee, T.Y.; Lo, C.H. The nature and timing of crustal thickening in Southern Tibet: Geochemical and zircon Hf isotopic constraints from postcollisional adakites. Tectonophysics 2009, 477, 36–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Chen, J.L.; Xu, J.F.; Zhao, W.X.; Dong, Y.H.; Wang, B.D.; Kang, Z.Q. Geochemical variations in Miocene adakitic rocks from the western and eastern Lhasa terrane: Implications for lower crustal flow beneath the Southern Tibetan Plateau. Lithos 2011, 125, 928–939. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Chen, X.J.; Xu, Z.Q.; Meng, Y.K.; He, Z.Y. Petrogenesis of Miocene adakitic diorite-porphyrite in middle Gangdese batholith, southern Tibet: Constraints from geochemistry, geochronology and Sr-Nd-Hf isotopes. Acta Petrol. Sin. 2014, 30, 2253–2268. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  69. Chen, J.L.; Xu, J.F.; Yu, H.X.; Wang, B.D.; Wu, J.B.; Feng, Y.X. Late Cretaceous high-Mg# granitoids in southern Tibet: Implications for the early crustal thickening and tectonic evolution of the Tibetan Plateau? Lithos 2015, 232, 12–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Li, Y.L.; Li, X.H.; Wang, C.S.; Wei, Y.S.; Chen, X.; He, J.; Xu, M.; Hou, Y.L. Miocene adakitic intrusions in the Zhongba terrane: Implications for the origin and geochemical variations of post-collisional adakitic rocks in southern Tibet. Gondwana Res. 2017, 41, 65–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Tian, S.H.; Yang, Z.S.; Hou, Z.Q.; Mo, X.X.; Hu, W.J.; Zhao, Y.; Zhao, X.Y. Subduction of the Indian lower crust beneath southern Tibet revealed by the post-collisional potassic and ultrapotassic rocks in SW Tibet. Gondwana Res. 2017, 41, 29–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Li, Z.; Lang, X.H.; Zhang, Q.Z.; He, L. Petrogenesis and geodynamic settings of the intermediate-acid intrusions related to the Pusangguo copper-dominated polymetallic deposit in Tibet: Constraints from geochronology, geochemistry and Sr-Nd-Pb-Hf isotopes. Acta Petrol. Sin. 2019, 35, 737–759. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  73. Xu, W.C.; Zhang, H.F.; Guo, L.; Yuan, H.L. Miocene high Sr/Y magmatism, south Tibet: Product of partial melting of subducted Indian continental crust and its tectonic implication. Lithos 2010, 114, 293–306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Jiang, Z.Q.; Wang, Q.; Wyman, D.A.; Li, Z.X.; Yang, J.H.; Shi, X.B.; Ma, L.; Tang, G.J.; Gou, G.N.; Jia, X.H. Transition from oceanic to continental lithosphere subduction in southern Tibet: Evidence from the Late Cretaceous–Early Oligocene (~91–30 Ma) intrusive rocks in the Chanang–Zedong area, southern Gangdese. Lithos 2014, 196–197, 213–231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Castillo, P.R. An overview of adakite petrogenesis. Chin. Sci. Bull. 2006, 51, 11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Streck, M.J.; Leeman, W.P.; Chesley, J. High-magnesian andesite from Mount Shasta: A product of magma mixing and contamination, not a primitive mantle melt. Geology 2007, 35, 351–354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Allègre, C.J.; Minster, J.F. Quantitative models of trace element behavior in magmatic processes. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1978, 38, 1–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Douce, A.E.P. What do experiments tell us about the relative contributions of crust and mantle to the origin of granitic magmas? Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ. 1999, 168, 55–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Chu, M.F.; Chung, S.L.; O’Reilly, S.Y.; Pearson, N.J.; Wu, F.Y.; Li, X.H.; Liu, D.; Ji, J.; Chu, C.H.; Lee, H.Y. India’s hidden inputs to Tibetan orogeny revealed by Hf isotopes of Transhimalayan zircons and host rocks. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2011, 307, 479–486. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Li, H.Y.; Zhong, S.L.; Wang, Y.B.; Zhu, D.C.; Yang, J.H.; Song, B.; Liu, D.Y.; Wu, F.Y. Age, petrogenesis and geological significance of the Linzizong volcanic successions in the Linzhou basin, southern Tibet: Evidence from zircon U-Pb dates and Hf isotopes. Acta Petrol. Sin. 2007, 23, 493–500. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  81. Chu, M.F.; Chung, S.L.; Song, B.; Liu, D.Y.; O’Reilly, S.Y.; Pearson, N.J.; Ji, J.Q.; Wen, D.J. Zircon U-Pb and Hf isotope constraints on the Mesozoic tectonics and crustal evolution of southern Tibet. Geology 2006, 34, 745–748. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Zhang, Z.M.; Ding, H.X.; Dong, X.; Tian, Z.L. The Gangdese arc magmatism: From Neo-Tethyan subduction to Indo-Asian collision. Earth Sci. Front. 2018, 25, 78–91. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Mungall, J.E. Roasting the mantle: Slab melting and the genesis of major Au and Au-rich Cu deposits. Geology 2002, 30, 915–918. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Defant, M.J.; Kepezhinskas, P. Evidence suggests slab melting in arc magmas. Eos Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 2006, 82, 65–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Oyarzun, R.; Márquez, A.; Lillo, J.; López, I.; Rivera, S. Giant versus small porphyry copper deposits of Cenozoic age in northern Chile: Adakitic versus normal calc-alkaline magmatism. Miner. Depos. 2001, 36, 794–798. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Hou, Z.Q.; Yang, Z.M.; Qu, X.M.; Meng, X.J.; Zaw, K. The Miocene Gangdese porphyry copper belt generated during post-collisional extension in the Tibetan Orogen. Ore Geol. Rev. 2009, 36, 25–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Audetat, A.; Gunther, D.; Heinrich, C.A. Formation of a magmatic-hydrothermal ore deposit: Insights with LA-ICP-MS analysis of fluid inclusions. Science 1998, 279, 2091–2094. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  88. Heinrich Christoph, A.; Thomas, D.; Andri, S.; Seward Terry, M. Magmatic vapor contraction and the transport of gold from the porphyry environment to epithermal ore deposits. Geology 2004, 32, 761–764. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Coleman, M.; Hodges, K. Evidence for Tibetan plateau uplift below 14 Myr ago from a new minimum age for east-west extension. Nature 1995, 374, 49–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  90. Blisniuk, P.M.; Hacker, B.R.; Glodny, J.; Ratschbacher, L.; Bi, S.; Wu, Z.; Mcwilliams, M.O.; Calvert, A. Normal faulting in central Tibet since at least 135 Myr ago. Nature 2001, 412, 628–632. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  91. Hou, Z.Q.; Gao, Y.F.; Qu, X.M.; Rui, Z.Y.; Mo, X.X. Origin of adakitic intrusives generated during mid-Miocene east–west extension in southern Tibet. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2004, 220, 139–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Hou, Z.Q.; Qu, X.M.; Wang, S.X.; Gao, Y.F.; Du, A.D.; Huang, W. Re-Os ages of molybdenite in the Gangdese porphyry copper belt in south Tibet: Duration of mineralization and application of the dynamic setting. Sci. China 2003, 33, 609–618. [Google Scholar]
  93. Hou, Z.Q.; Mo, X.X.; Gao, Y.F.; Qu, X.M.; Meng, X.J. Adakite, a possible host rock for porphyry copper deposits: Case studies of porphyry copper belts in Tibetan Plateau and in Northern Chile. Miner. Depos. 2003, 22, 1–12. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  94. Wu, C.D. Petrogenesis of Adakites and Its Potential for Porphyry Copper Mineralization in Gangdese Belt, Tibet. Ph.D. Thesis, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, China, 2019. (In Chinese). [Google Scholar]
  95. Sun, H.Z.; Zhao, Z.D.; Zhu, D.C.; Liu, D.; Wang, Q.; Tang, Y.; Qi, N.Y.; Dong, G.C. Geochronology, geochemistry and petrogenesis of Miocene adakitic rocks in Milashan, Southern Tibet. Acta Petrol. Sin. 2021, 37, 3479–3500. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  96. Rui, Z.Y.; Hou, Z.Q.; Qu, X.M.; Zhang, L.S.; Wang, L.S.; Liu, Y.L. Metallogenetic epoch of Gangdese porphyry copper belt and uplift of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Miner. Depos. 2003, 22, 217–225. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  97. Qu, X.M.; Hou, Z.Q.; Li, Z.Q. 40Ar/39Ar Ages of the ore-bearing porphyries of the Gangdese porphyry copper belt and their geological significances. Acta Geol. Sin. 2003, 77, 245–252. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
  98. Wang, R.; Richards, J.P.; Hou, Z.; Yang, Z.; Gou, Z.; DuFrane, S.A. Increasing Magmatic Oxidation State from Paleocene to Miocene in the Eastern Gangdese Belt, Tibet: Implication for Collision-Related Porphyry Cu-Mo ± Au Mineralization. Econ. Geol. 2014, 109, 1943–1965. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  99. Richards, J.P. Tectono-magmatic precursors for porphyry Cu-(Mo-Au) deposit formation. Econ. Geol. 2003, 98, 1515–1533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  100. Wang, R.; Richards, J.P.; Hou, Z.Q.; Yang, Z.M.; DuFrane, S.A. Increased Magmatic Water Content—The Key to Oligo-Miocene Porphyry Cu-Mo ± Au Formation in the Eastern Gangdese Belt, Tibet. Econ. Geol. 2014, 109, 1315–1339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  101. Lu, Y.J.; Loucks, R.R.; Fiorentini, M.L.; Yang, Z.M.; Hou, Z.Q. Fluid flux melting generated postcollisional high Sr/Y copper ore–forming water-rich magmas in Tibet. Geology 2015, 43, 583–586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  102. Richards, J.P. The oxidation state, and sulfur and Cu contents of arc magmas: Implications for metallogeny. Lithos 2015, 233, 27–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  103. Yang, L.Q.; Deng, J.; Guo, L.N.; Wang, Z.L.; Li, X.Z.; Li, J.L. Origin and evolution of ore fluid, and gold-deposition processes at the giant Taishang gold deposit, Jiaodong Peninsula, eastern China. Ore Geol. Rev. 2016, 72, 585–602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  104. Williamson, B.J.; Herrington, R.J.; Morris, A. Porphyry copper enrichment linked to excess aluminium in plagioclase. Nat. Geosci. 2016, 9, 237–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  105. Naney, M.T. Phase equilibria of rock-forming ferromagnesian silicates in granitic systems. Am. J. Sci. 1983, 283, 993–1033. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  106. Ridolfi, F.; Renzulli, A.; Puerini, M. Stability and chemical equilibrium of amphibole in talc-alkaline magmas: An overview, new thermobarometric formulations and application to subduction-related volcanoes. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 2010, 160, 45–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  107. Mahoney, J.J.; Frei, R.; Tejada, M.L.G.; Mo, X.X.; Leat, P.T.; Nägler, T.F. Tracing the indian ocean mantle domain through time: Isotopic results from old West Indian, East Tethyan, and South Pacific Seafloor. J. Petrol. 1998, 39, 1285–1306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  108. Sillitoe, R.H.; Thompson, J.F.H.; Shimazaki, H. Intrusion-related vein gold deposits; types, tectono-magmatic settings and difficulties of distinction from orogenic gold deposits. Resour. Geol. 1998, 48, 237–250. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Minerals 15 00500 g002
Figure 2. Geological sketch map of Wubaduolai mining area.
Figure 2. Geological sketch map of Wubaduolai mining area.
Minerals 15 00500 g002
Minerals 15 00500 g003
Figure 3. Specimens and microscopic photos of two plutons from Wubaduolai mining area: (a,b) granodiorite porphyry with malachite mineralization; (c,d) monzogranite; (e,f) granodiorite porphyry. Qtz—quartz; Hbl—hornblende; Bt—biotite; Pl—plagioclase; Kfs—k-feldspar.
Figure 3. Specimens and microscopic photos of two plutons from Wubaduolai mining area: (a,b) granodiorite porphyry with malachite mineralization; (c,d) monzogranite; (e,f) granodiorite porphyry. Qtz—quartz; Hbl—hornblende; Bt—biotite; Pl—plagioclase; Kfs—k-feldspar.
Minerals 15 00500 g003
Minerals 15 00500 g004
Figure 4. Zircon CL images of plutons from Wubaduolai mining area.
Figure 4. Zircon CL images of plutons from Wubaduolai mining area.
Minerals 15 00500 g004
Minerals 15 00500 g005
Figure 5. U-Pb concordia of zircons from plutons in Wubaduolai mining area.
Figure 5. U-Pb concordia of zircons from plutons in Wubaduolai mining area.
Minerals 15 00500 g005
Minerals 15 00500 g006
Figure 6. Geochemical diagrams of plutons from Wubaduolai mining area (metallogenetic plutons from Zhunuo deposit from [40,41]): (a) TAS diagram [36]; (b) A/CNK-A/NK diagram [37]; (c) SiO2-K2O diagram [39,42]; and (d) Y-Sr/Y diagram [43].
Figure 6. Geochemical diagrams of plutons from Wubaduolai mining area (metallogenetic plutons from Zhunuo deposit from [40,41]): (a) TAS diagram [36]; (b) A/CNK-A/NK diagram [37]; (c) SiO2-K2O diagram [39,42]; and (d) Y-Sr/Y diagram [43].
Minerals 15 00500 g006
Minerals 15 00500 g007
Figure 7. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns (a) and primitive mantle-normalized trace element patterns (b) of plutons from Wubaduolai mining area [44] (see Figure 6 for references).
Figure 7. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns (a) and primitive mantle-normalized trace element patterns (b) of plutons from Wubaduolai mining area [44] (see Figure 6 for references).
Minerals 15 00500 g007
Minerals 15 00500 g008
Figure 8. Diagenesis–mineralization age of porphyry copper deposits in Zhunuo ore-concentrated area (Cimabanshuo [5,59]; Beimulang [58,60]; Zhunuo [40,41,48,51,56]).
Figure 8. Diagenesis–mineralization age of porphyry copper deposits in Zhunuo ore-concentrated area (Cimabanshuo [5,59]; Beimulang [58,60]; Zhunuo [40,41,48,51,56]).
Minerals 15 00500 g008
Minerals 15 00500 g009
Figure 9. Genetic types and source discrimination diagrams of plutons from Wubaduolai mining area: (a) Th-Th/Nd diagram; (b) Th-Th/Sm diagram; (c) SiO2-MgO diagram; and (d) Al2O3/(FeOT + MgO + TiO2) − Al2O3 + FeOT + MgO + TiO2 diagram [78].
Figure 9. Genetic types and source discrimination diagrams of plutons from Wubaduolai mining area: (a) Th-Th/Nd diagram; (b) Th-Th/Sm diagram; (c) SiO2-MgO diagram; and (d) Al2O3/(FeOT + MgO + TiO2) − Al2O3 + FeOT + MgO + TiO2 diagram [78].
Minerals 15 00500 g009
Minerals 15 00500 g010
Figure 10. Plot of age versus εHf(t) for plutons from Wubaduolai mining area (modified after [79]; the data on Linzizong volcanic rocks are from [80], ore-bearing plutons in South Gangdese metallogenic belt are from [81], Zhunuo mineralization period and post-mineralization plutons are from [41], and other data are from [82] and its references).
Figure 10. Plot of age versus εHf(t) for plutons from Wubaduolai mining area (modified after [79]; the data on Linzizong volcanic rocks are from [80], ore-bearing plutons in South Gangdese metallogenic belt are from [81], Zhunuo mineralization period and post-mineralization plutons are from [41], and other data are from [82] and its references).
Minerals 15 00500 g010
Minerals 15 00500 g011
Figure 11. Schematic diagram showing the petrogenetic and geodynamical model for the adakitic plutons in the Wubaduolai copper deposit [72].
Figure 11. Schematic diagram showing the petrogenetic and geodynamical model for the adakitic plutons in the Wubaduolai copper deposit [72].
Minerals 15 00500 g011
Table 1. LA-ICP-MS U-Pb data for zircon from plutons in Wubaduolai mining area.
Table 1. LA-ICP-MS U-Pb data for zircon from plutons in Wubaduolai mining area.
SpotPbThUTh/U207Pb/206Pb207Pb/235U206Pb/238U207Pb/235U206Pb/238UConcordance
ppmppmppmRatio1σRatio1σRatio1σAge1σAge1σ
WB01-14.153814970.77 0.03680.00740.01230.00230.002350.000012.372.2615.120.3080%
WB01-22.74 233 451 0.520.04470.0102 0.01490.00410.002570.0001 15.034.0716.540.3690%
WB01-35.28 503 548 0.920.04730.0083 0.01620.00260.002480.0000 16.282.615.970.2898%
WB01-44.94 427 477 0.900.04920.0095 0.01600.00260.002470.0001 16.142.6415.900.3298%
WB01-55.94 598 577 1.040.04910.0078 0.01610.00200.002420.0000 16.202.0315.560.2995%
WB01-66.42 602 843 0.710.04760.0076 0.01580.00270.002430.0000 15.882.6515.650.2898%
WB01-77.52 861 829 1.040.04840.0083 0.01470.00210.002380.0000 14.862.1415.330.3096%
WB01-83.78 304 598 0.510.04960.0084 0.01690.00260.002550.0001 17.042.6416.410.3296%
WB01-95.39 469 557 0.840.04980.0087 0.01570.00180.002520.0001 15.841.8416.230.3597%
WB01-104.64 373 510 0.730.04700.0094 0.01590.00370.002470.0000 16.063.7415.930.3299%
WB01-113.993153910.810.06180.01030.02210.00270.002750.000122.242.7217.690.3477%
WB01-1211.29 1288 829 1.550.04840.0084 0.01560.00270.002420.0000 15.742.6915.600.2599%
WB01-1313.534755060.940.22780.02200.11600.01390.003160.0001111.4112.6020.360.70−39%
WB01-144.843945030.780.05920.00890.02680.00420.002920.000126.814.2018.800.5964%
WB01-154.32 421 469 0.900.04840.0088 0.01540.00220.002440.0000 15.532.2115.720.3198%
WB01-163.55 294 365 0.810.05010.0098 0.01660.00240.002380.0000 16.682.3515.340.3291%
WB01-173.72 334 400 0.830.04900.0091 0.01600.00170.002440.0001 16.121.6615.720.3697%
WB01-1810.59 1405 574 2.450.04600.0085 0.01400.00210.002370.0000 14.142.0615.250.2892%
WB01-199.20 928 730 1.270.04950.0080 0.01660.00260.002480.0001 16.752.5815.950.4395%
WB01-207.236155801.060.07460.01040.02450.00280.002410.000024.572.7715.530.3154%
WB01-215.095294981.060.05570.00910.01710.00230.002410.000117.262.2615.490.3989%
WB01-224.20 411 422 0.970.04960.0098 0.01530.00250.002380.0001 15.432.4715.330.3599%
WB02-017.305827260.800.03130.00510.01080.00150.002560.000010.901.4816.510.2759%
WB02-023.02 185 265 0.700.04190.0085 0.03210.00860.005470.0002 32.078.4335.151.4090%
WB02-034.44 399 433 0.920.04970.0106 0.01580.00340.002550.0000 15.943.4416.390.3197%
WB02-043.39 236 490 0.480.05320.0109 0.01810.00460.002570.0000 18.254.5916.560.3190%
WB02-056.66 648 743 0.870.04650.0069 0.01540.00190.002430.0000 15.571.9315.660.2599%
WB02-066.20 599 795 0.750.04650.0061 0.01610.00160.002490.0000 16.191.6516.060.3199%
WB02-074.08 241 508 0.470.05100.0100 0.01670.00320.002590.0000 16.833.2116.690.2999%
WB02-0811.20 935 1151 0.810.04740.0052 0.01630.00150.002530.0000 16.391.5016.300.2799%
WB02-094.081644400.370.05990.00640.03440.00290.004270.000134.352.8327.460.6877%
WB02-104.313254950.660.05800.00830.01940.00190.002530.000019.531.9316.260.3181%
WB02-112.94 243 458 0.530.04960.0090 0.01700.00330.002480.0001 17.113.2715.950.3492%
WB02-125.40 383 580 0.660.05050.0081 0.01640.00230.002540.0000 16.532.2916.350.2798%
WB02-133.55 298 513 0.580.04720.0096 0.01510.00330.002460.0000 15.253.2615.860.2796%
WB02-147.51 746 537 1.390.04860.0083 0.01490.00210.002410.0000 15.062.0715.520.2997%
WB02-155.544976810.730.06320.00990.01980.00240.002340.000019.952.3815.090.2472%
WB02-169.40 853 922 0.920.04940.0059 0.01640.00160.002440.0000 16.511.6115.680.2794%
WB02-173.92 315 439 0.720.05040.0095 0.01660.00280.002550.0000 16.682.8416.450.3198%
WB02-184.59 401 505 0.800.04370.0094 0.01510.00460.002470.0000 15.194.5715.910.3195%
WB02-195.05 453 668 0.680.04570.0075 0.01480.00220.002390.0000 14.912.2315.370.2996%
WB02-206.29 603 632 0.950.04200.0065 0.01440.00180.002420.0000 14.561.8115.570.2693%
WB02-216.42 591 756 0.780.04980.0072 0.01580.00190.002380.0000 15.891.9415.300.2996%
WB02-226.26 565 637 0.890.04440.0071 0.01440.00200.002380.0000 14.471.9615.300.2094%
WB02-234.46 394 589 0.670.04440.0073 0.01490.00190.002460.0000 14.991.8915.830.3294%
WB02-249.19 998 783 1.270.04450.0064 0.01520.00200.002450.0000 15.342.0315.790.3297%
Note: Due to the low concordance of some of the data, they were excluded when calculating the concordia age and are displayed as deleted data.
Table 2. Hf isotope data for zircons from plutons in Wubaduolai mining area.
Table 2. Hf isotope data for zircons from plutons in Wubaduolai mining area.
Spot176Yb/177Hf176Lu/177Hf1σ176Hf/177Hf1σAge (Ma)IHfεHf(0)εHf(t)TDMTDM2TCHURfLu/Hf
WB01-20.014323 0.000450 0.000004 0.282665 0.000012 15.690.282665−3.78 −3.44 819 1318 175−0.99
WB01-40.025132 0.000721 0.000010 0.282697 0.000012 15.690.282697−2.65 −2.31 780 1246 124−0.98
WB01-50.014839 0.000441 0.000004 0.282659 0.000012 15.690.282659−4.00 −3.65 828 1333 184−0.99
WB01-60.018179 0.000539 0.000003 0.282679 0.000012 15.690.282679−3.29 −2.94 802 1288 152−0.98
WB01-70.016703 0.000512 0.000009 0.282660 0.000012 15.690.282660 −3.96 −3.62 828 1331 183−0.98
WB01-80.042572 0.001069 0.000037 0.282611 0.000015 15.690.282611 −5.69 −5.35 909 1441 268−0.97
WB01-90.018498 0.000552 0.000003 0.282654 0.000012 15.690.282654 −4.17 −3.83 837 1344 193−0.98
WB01-150.018424 0.000552 0.000007 0.282646 0.000012 15.690.282646 −4.46 −4.11 848 1362 206−0.98
WB01-100.013820 0.000408 0.000006 0.282684 0.000011 15.690.282684 −3.11 −2.77 792 1276 144−0.99
WB01-120.015277 0.000445 0.000007 0.282688 0.000012 15.690.282688 −2.97 −2.63 787 1267 137−0.99
WB01-160.016477 0.000475 0.000007 0.282677 0.000012 15.690.282677 −3.36 −3.02 803 1292 155−0.99
WB01-170.023830 0.000661 0.000009 0.282682 0.000012 15.690.282682−3.18 −2.84 800 1281 148−0.98
WB01-180.025068 0.000788 0.000021 0.282677 0.000012 15.690.282677−3.36 −3.02 810 1292 157−0.98
WB01-190.033294 0.000876 0.000026 0.282653 0.000013 15.690.282653−4.21 −3.86 845 1346 197−0.97
WB01-210.022565 0.000664 0.000010 0.282679 0.000012 15.690.282679−3.29 −2.94 804 1287 153−0.98
WB01-220.027010 0.000798 0.000012 0.282663 0.000012 15.690.282663−3.85 −3.51 830 1324 180−0.98
WB02-020.0205000.0004790.0000490.2823740.00001715.910.282374−14.07−13.7312231972648−0.99
WB02-030.015192 0.000444 0.000004 0.282649 0.000011 15.910.282649−4.35 −4.00 841 1354 201−0.99
WB02-040.014003 0.000445 0.000012 0.282641 0.000011 15.910.282641−4.63 −4.28 853 1374 214−0.99
WB02-050.013008 0.000399 0.000007 0.282645 0.000011 15.910.282645−4.49 −4.14 846 1364 207−0.99
WB02-060.026214 0.000790 0.000018 0.282620 0.000012 15.910.28262−5.38 −5.03 890 1421 251−0.98
WB02-070.009255 0.000310 0.000002 0.282615 0.000010 15.910.282615−5.55 −5.20 886 1432 255−0.99
WB02-080.024191 0.000723 0.000005 0.282628 0.000012 15.910.282628−5.09 −4.74 877 1402 237−0.98
WB02-110.028918 0.000891 0.000030 0.282649 0.000010 15.910.282649−4.35 −4.00 851 1355 204−0.97
WB02-120.023184 0.000667 0.000006 0.282671 0.000012 15.910.282671−3.57 −3.22 816 1306 166−0.98
WB02-130.021393 0.000611 0.000005 0.282640 0.000010 15.910.28264−4.67 −4.32 858 1376 217−0.98
WB02-140.017844 0.000502 0.000003 0.282643 0.000011 15.910.282643−4.56 −4.21 851 1368 211−0.98
WB02-160.027674 0.000731 0.000006 0.282626 0.000012 15.910.282626−5.16 −4.81 880 1407 240−0.98
WB02-170.017125 0.000474 0.000005 0.282615 0.000011 15.910.282615−5.55 −5.20 889 1431 256−0.99
WB02-180.014507 0.000412 0.000006 0.282627 0.000011 15.910.282627−5.13 −4.78 871 1404 236−0.99
WB02-190.021111 0.000570 0.000003 0.282636 0.000011 15.910.282636−4.81 −4.46 862 1384 223−0.98
WB02-200.021727 0.000582 0.000006 0.282649 0.000012 15.910.282649−4.35 −4.00 845 1356 202−0.98
WB02-210.017282 0.000481 0.000011 0.282644 0.000012 15.910.282644−4.53 −4.18 849 1366 209−0.99
WB02-220.020086 0.000553 0.000004 0.282629 0.000012 15.910.282629−5.06 −4.71 872 1401 234−0.98
WB02-230.021088 0.000586 0.000007 0.282660 0.000012 15.910.28266−3.96 −3.61 829 1330 184−0.98
WB02-240.020085 0.000544 0.000005 0.282665 0.000011 15.910.282665−3.78 −3.44 821 1318 175−0.98
Note: The calculation formulas are as follows: εHf(0) = [(176Hf/177Hf)S/(176Hf/177Hf)CHUR,0 − 1] × 10,000; εHf(t) = {[(176Hf/177Hf)S − (176Lu/177Hf)S × (eλt − 1)]/[(176Hf/177Hf)CHUR,0 − (176Lu/177Hf)CHUR × (eλt − 1)] − 1} × 10,000; TDM = 1/λ × ln{1 + [(176Hf/177Hf)S − (176Hf/177Hf)DM]/[(176Lu/177Hf)S − (176Lu/177Hf)DM]}; TDM2 = TDM − (TDM − t)(fcc - fs)/(fcc − fDM); fLu/Hf = [(176Lu/177Hf)S/(176Lu/177Hf)CHUR] − 1; t = zircon age; λ = 1.867 × 10−11a−1; (176Hf/177Hf)CHUR,0 = 0.282772; (176Lu/177Hf)CHUR = 0.0332; (176Hf/177Hf)DM = 0.28325; (176Lu/177Hf)DM = 0.0384 [28,29,35]. Due to significant fluctuation in the result of a sample spot, which exceed the margin of error, the data from the sample spot was excluded from the discussion and marked with a strikethrough in the table.
Table 3. Major (wt.%) and trace (ppm) element data from plutons in Wubaduolai mining area.
Table 3. Major (wt.%) and trace (ppm) element data from plutons in Wubaduolai mining area.
MonzograniteGranodiorite Porphyry
SampleWB0101WB0102WB0103WB0104WB0105WB0201WB0202WB0203WB0204WB0205
SiO266.33 66.52 66.14 66.75 66.48 66.80 67.31 67.67 66.83 66.66
Al2O315.69 15.54 15.70 15.47 15.55 15.88 16.49 16.02 15.48 16.28
TFe2O33.34 3.17 3.19 3.32 3.14 3.29 2.97 3.15 3.09 3.07
CaO3.00 3.40 3.42 3.21 2.96 1.26 1.53 1.23 0.89 1.50
MgO1.58 1.47 1.51 1.52 1.55 1.37 1.45 1.36 1.20 1.46
K2O4.16 3.78 3.82 3.86 4.00 4.18 4.00 4.34 4.33 4.02
Na2O3.70 3.86 3.90 3.84 3.77 3.85 4.22 3.91 3.89 4.22
P2O50.20 0.20 0.19 0.20 0.20 0.067 0.059 0.064 0.074 0.057
MnO0.050 0.052 0.054 0.051 0.041 0.044 0.043 0.046 0.034 0.033
TiO20.55 0.56 0.56 0.53 0.52 0.56 0.55 0.52 0.54 0.51
FeO1.41 1.41 1.46 1.46 1.38 0.91 1.00 0.85 0.85 1.02
Fe2O31.771.61.571.71.62.281.852.212.151.94
LOI1.361.051.030.781.111.711.501.621.861.52
Sr791.5820.3816.7823.7776.9618.1715.8615.8581.8714.1
Ba875.4715.6755.0655.1837.0727.0777.1892.7784.7770.3
V49.152.356.550.254.454.949.052.845.851.6
Zr131.9138.0138.9141.4147.7153.4148.7154.6138.1159.1
Li47.848.851.638.650.725.325.324.719.624.5
Be3.624.004.403.983.984.434.133.894.124.07
Sc4.874.824.705.084.924.534.354.454.254.67
Cr21.821.421.924.121.921.320.225.021.123.7
Co8.638.258.598.768.586.925.806.095.856.19
Ni12.712.313.013.513.513.212.512.811.813.1
Cu16.640.329.417.46.3687.383.189.912579.9
Zn83.310510474.169.973.016592.170.176.4
Ga18.519.319.318.419.118.218.518.218.318.3
Ge1.081.201.321.121.201.101.141.141.151.17
Rb197179182184184195190197200192
Y8.598.648.508.998.825.294.325.036.454.94
Nb7.397.627.677.937.679.018.758.708.488.51
Mo0.570.510.540.450.562.116.602.262.527.87
Rh81.089.186.690.185.887.285.389.088.595.3
Cd0.110.120.160.0570.0560.0790.250.180.0910.076
Cs6.866.606.964.647.1012.412.611.810.512.8
La33.133.733.635.233.326.125.327.726.626.8
Ce65.366.766.270.166.954.554.256.054.453.1
Pr7.617.767.608.067.635.515.725.835.735.88
Nd28.228.828.129.928.920.421.320.921.621.8
Sm4.544.704.554.854.683.833.663.914.513.76
Eu1.091.081.041.101.091.090.961.091.251.02
Gd3.273.253.193.363.243.022.532.933.742.74
Tb0.390.390.390.410.400.380.310.350.460.33
Dy1.891.891.861.951.891.621.311.502.021.44
Ho0.320.310.310.320.320.240.190.230.290.22
Er0.690.690.660.710.710.360.280.350.490.34
Tm0.120.110.110.120.110.0580.0510.0540.0690.055
Yb0.730.730.710.740.740.340.280.320.380.32
Lu0.110.110.110.110.110.0440.0400.0450.0490.041
Hf4.464.954.905.135.015.165.035.464.145.46
Ta0.670.680.660.660.670.760.700.690.700.67
W1.381.301.300.871.012.450.902.662.620.74
Re92.510299.010197.397.596.499.099.7106
Pb35.240.570.032.527.729.799.637.431.044.6
Th21.025.622.324.422.011.912.112.512.212.1
U4.955.375.325.565.122.546.892.872.597.73
As4.465.096.354.146.941.434.1613.21.161.23
Sr/Y929596928811716612290145
Eu/Eu*0.870.840.840.830.850.980.960.980.930.97
Note: Eu/Eu* = 2 × EuN/(SmN + GdN).
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Gao, K.; Zhang, Z.; Zhang, L.; Xu, P.; Yang, Y.; Wu, J.; Li, Y.; Sun, M.; Su, W. Significance of Adakitic Plutons for Mineralization in Wubaduolai Copper Deposit, Xizang: Evidence from Zircon U-Pb Age, Hf Isotope, and Geochemistry. Minerals 2025, 15, 500. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15050500

AMA Style

Gao K, Zhang Z, Zhang L, Xu P, Yang Y, Wu J, Li Y, Sun M, Su W. Significance of Adakitic Plutons for Mineralization in Wubaduolai Copper Deposit, Xizang: Evidence from Zircon U-Pb Age, Hf Isotope, and Geochemistry. Minerals. 2025; 15(5):500. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15050500

Chicago/Turabian Style

Gao, Ke, Zhi Zhang, Linkui Zhang, Peiyan Xu, Yi Yang, Jianyang Wu, Yingxu Li, Miao Sun, and Wenpeng Su. 2025. "Significance of Adakitic Plutons for Mineralization in Wubaduolai Copper Deposit, Xizang: Evidence from Zircon U-Pb Age, Hf Isotope, and Geochemistry" Minerals 15, no. 5: 500. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15050500

APA Style

Gao, K., Zhang, Z., Zhang, L., Xu, P., Yang, Y., Wu, J., Li, Y., Sun, M., & Su, W. (2025). Significance of Adakitic Plutons for Mineralization in Wubaduolai Copper Deposit, Xizang: Evidence from Zircon U-Pb Age, Hf Isotope, and Geochemistry. Minerals, 15(5), 500. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15050500

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop