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Article

Zircon U–Pb Ages and Geochemistry of Diaoluoshan Granite, Hainan Island: Implications for Late Cretaceous Tectonics in South China

by
Chao Wang
1,2,
Dingyong Liang
1,2,*,
Changxin Wei
1,2,*,
Mulong Chen
3,
Zailong Hu
1,2 and
Changyan Lv
2
1
Hainan Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Geological Resources and Environment, Haikou 570206, China
2
Geological Survey Institute of Hainan Province, Haikou 570206, China
3
Hainan Institute of Mineral Resources Exploration, Haikou 570206, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2025, 15(12), 1242; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15121242
Submission received: 25 August 2025 / Revised: 18 November 2025 / Accepted: 20 November 2025 / Published: 24 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Igneous Rocks as Archives of Earth's Geological History: Magma Processes and Continental Crust Evolution)
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Abstract

Hainan Island has experienced a superposition of multiple phases of tectonic movements and magmatic activities, leading to numerous controversies regarding the genesis, spatiotemporal distribution, and tectonic setting of its Yanshanian granites. Accurately determining the characteristics of magmatic rocks during this period is crucial for clarifying the regional tectonic evolution. This study focuses on Diaoluoshan granite in the southeastern part of Hainan Island. Through petrological, mineralogical, zircon U-Pb geochronological, and geochemical analyses, it aims to identify the genetic type, formation age, and magma source properties of this pluton, thereby revealing the Late Yanshanian tectonic setting of Hainan Island. The results show that the zircon U-Pb dating of Diaoluoshan granite yields an age of 102.5 ± 2.8Ma, indicating its formation in the late Early Cretaceous. This granite is a high-K calc-alkaline I-type granite, with silica (SiO2) content ranging from 63.9% to 77.3%. The pluton exhibits significant negative anomalies of Ta, Nb, P, and Ti, as well as relatively obvious positive anomalies of Rb, Th, U, and K. The biotite in the granite has a magnesium oxide (MgO) content ranging from 12.84% to 13.13%, showing characteristics of crust–mantle material mixing. The magma of this pluton was derived from the partial melting of the lower continental crust mixed with the uprising and underplating mantle mafic magmas, driven by the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plate and its slab rollback. This study confirms that during the Late Yanshanian, Hainan Island was in an extensional rift environment driven by the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plate and its slab rollback, but without a well-developed volcanic front. It provides key geological evidence for the study of Yanshanian tectono-magmatic evolution in South China.

1. Introduction

Hainan Island, Chinea’s largest southeastern coastal island, lies at the junction of the Pacific, Indo-Australian, and Eurasian Plates, connected to the South China Plate via the Qiongzhou Strait. Its unique tectonic location makes it key for addressing major geological issues—including the South China Plate margin’s dynamic mechanism, Tethys tectonic domain evolution, and global supercontinent reconstruction (Figure 1a) [1,2,3,4,5]. However, the island has undergone multiple tectonic phases, featuring superimposed magmatism, tectonic events, associated crust–mantle interactions, and magma differentiation. These factors have complicated the understanding of Hainan’s magmatic–tectonic activities, sparking controversies over key issues—such as the detailed spatiotemporal distribution, genetic mechanisms, and emplacement tectonic regime of Indosinian–Yanshanian granites [6,7,8,9]. (1) Petrogenesis: Mesozoic magmatism in South China is dominated by high-silica granites (SiO2 > 70%), with common geochemical traits linked to both source composition and magma formation [10]. Yet many Mesozoic granites in Hainan differ from single-source S-type/I-type granites (derived from sedimentary/igneous melting), leading to conflicting classifications (I-type/A-type/S-type) of the same pluton and divergent interpretations of its genesis and tectonic context [11,12]. Thus, accurate granite typing is prerequisite to defining its genesis, source properties, and Hainan’s Mesozoic tectonic evolution. (2) Tectonic setting: While the Paleo-Pacific subduction model explains the spatiotemporal pattern of South China’s Late Mesozoic magmatism [13,14], it faces challenges—e.g., unlike the andesite-dominated classic Andean active continental margin arc, South China’s Late Mesozoic igneous rocks are dominated by acidic volcanic rocks [15].
In recent years, with the successive reports of Cretaceous basic dikes, volcanic rocks, and A-type, S-type, and I-type granites, the Cretaceous geological evolution and deep dynamic processes of Hainan Island have gradually become one of the research hotspots in the Mesozoic of South China [16,17,18,19]. In this paper, the authors report the results of ICP-MS zircon dating of the granite pluton discovered in the Diaoluoshan area of Hainan Island, precisely constraining its formation to the late Early Cretaceous. Additionally, mineralogical and petrogeochemical studies were carried out, and combined with previous research results, this paper discusses its genetic type and tectonic setting, aiming to provide constraints and references for studying the tectonic–magmatic events of Hainan Island during this period.

2. Geological Settings

Hainan Island has undergone multiple stages of tectonic evolution, resulting in dominant tectonic systems trending nearly EW, NE, NW, and SN. These tectonic belts, distributed across the entire island, indicate that Hainan Island has been affected by intense tectonic activities since the Mesoproterozoic, and they have also controlled the sedimentary and magmatic processes on the island [20]. The intrusive rocks in Hainan Island cover a large area and span multiple stages, with the most developed being those of the Hercynian-Indosinian period, distributed in a scattered pattern. The Yanshanian granites are the next most prominent, and their distribution is related to the NE-SW-trending fault zones. The age of the Baoban Group, the oldest strata in Hainan Island, is 1400 Ma [21], which consists of a suite of quartzite-schist, (migmatized) felsic gneiss, plagioclase amphibole (gneiss), and gneissic granite assemblages. The Nanhua, Jixian, Devonian, and Jurassic systems are absent. The Paleozoic strata are mainly marine deposits, while strata since the Late Mesozoic are primarily distributed near coastal areas and some fault basins [22]. Starting from the Middle Jurassic, influenced by the Yanshanian tectonic movement, NE-trending fault basins and NE-trending granite belts were formed in the central and north-central parts of Hainan Island (Figure 1b) [23,24,25]. The study area is located south of the Changjiang–Qionghai tectonic belt, where the EW-trending Jianfeng–Diaoluo fault zone and NE-trending Yacheng–Wanning fault zone are the main structures, with numerous small NW-trending structures developed in the area. The Diaoluoshan pluton is composed of coarse-medium-grained (porphyritic) biotite syenogranite. The southern, northern, and western parts of the pluton are in contact with Permian-Triassic granites, the southwestern part intrudes into Early Cretaceous granite, and the eastern part is covered by Quaternary strata, with an outcropping area of 528 km2 (Figure 1c).
The lithology is coarse-medium-grained (porphyritic) biotite syenogranite (Figure 2a). A large number of gray-black mafic microgranular enclaves with various shapes are observed in the Diaoluoshan pluton (Figure 2b). The enclaves are rounded, elongated, or intermediate in shape, with significant size variations, mostly ranging from 1 cm × 2 cm to 10 cm × 13 cm. Phenocryst xenocrysts of feldspar from the host rock and acicular apatite are common in the enclaves. Both the feldspar xenocrysts in the enclaves and the feldspars in the host rock develop zoning structures. The content of phenocrysts gradually increases towards the central part of the pluton, reaching up to 10%. The pluton shows a trend of textural change from coarse-medium-grained in the interior to medium-grained towards the exterior. The mineral composition of the rock is shown in Figure 2c–f: Quartz grains form aggregates with tightly packed curved or irregular polygonal boundaries, and these aggregates are mostly distributed in the irregular interstices between feldspar grains. K-feldspar exhibits well-developed Carlsbad twins and albite periclines. Comb-like albite aggregates of later generations often occur between plagioclase grains. Accessory minerals mainly include allanite, zircon, magnetite, apatite, and titanite, with a total content exceeding 1000 g/t.

3. Methods

Samples were mainly collected from Diaoluoshan granite (southeastern Hainan Province), with 10 samples total. All samples were thin sections.
Firstly, fresh samples were sent to the Laboratory of Guangxi Regional Geological Survey Institute for crushing and zircon separation: crushed rocks were embedded in epoxy resin, then abraded and polished to expose zircon cores. Cathodoluminescence (CL) microscopy imaging was conducted on the cores; combined with reflected/transmitted light, this allowed observation of the zircon internal structure and the selection of suitable grains for dating.
Secondly, zircon U-Pb dating was performed at the State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources (GPMR), China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), using a high-precision LA-ICP-MS. Key parameters: ICP-MS (Agilent 7500a, Santa Clara, CA, USA) and laser ablation system (GeoLas200M, MicroLas, Göttingen, Germany); spot diameter 30 μm, ablation depth 20–40 μm; He as carrier gas; NIST SRM610 (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) for instrument optimization (single-spot ablation). For data acquisition, peak-hopping mode (one point per mass peak) was used: 2 standard measurements inserted after every 6 samples, and NIST SRM610 measured twice before/after 18 zircon testing spots. Standard zircon 91500 served as an external standard for age determination and NIST SRM610 for the element content, as well as 29Si (constant in zircons) as an internal standard to eliminate laser energy drift (RSD: 5%–15% for most elements). Isotopic ratios and element content were calculated via the Glitter method, with common lead correction following Andersen Tom’s approach; age calculation and concordia diagrams used Isoplot ver3.0. The final results adopted 206Pb/238U ages [26,27,28].
Whole-rock composition analysis was performed by the Hubei Institute of Geological Experiments: fresh samples were cleaned, dried, and crushed to 200 mesh; the major elements were analyzed via wet chemistry (deviation < 1%) and trace elements via ICP-MS at GPMR (deviation < 5%).
For electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), thin-section coating (to ensure conductivity) and mineral composition analysis were completed at the State Key Laboratory of the Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, CAS.

4. Results

4.1. Zircon U-Pb Age

Zircon grains from Diaoluoshan granite are mostly short to long prismatic, with a few irregularly prismatic grains. Cathodoluminescence (CL) images show that the zircons have well-developed crystal forms with oscillatory zoning, and some zircons enclose light-colored inherited zircons in their cores (Figure 3). The grain size ranges from 150 to 300 μm, with an aspect ratio of 1:1.5 to 1:2.5 (Table 1). The Th content in zircons is 185–2566 ppm and the U content is 178–3006 ppm, yielding Th/U ratios of 0.45–2.13, which is consistent with the Th/U ratio (>0.4) typical of magmatic zircons [29]. During the zircon U-Pb dating work, some of the 13 test results correspond to inherited zircons (Figure 3). These inherited zircons have relatively ancient ages, and despite the laser ablation spots being located at their rims, they still exert an influence on the dating results. Additionally, the mean square weighted deviation (MSWD) of the 13 data points is 11.1, which is much higher than 2.5, indicating obvious significant dispersion among these age data. Therefore, we only plotted part of the data points—all lying on or slightly to the right of the concordia line, forming a relatively concentrated data cluster (Figure 4). This cluster suggests that the U-Pb isotope system of these zircon grains has remained closed since their formation [30], with consistent ages. The final weighted mean age is 102.5 ± 2.8Ma (n = 4, MSWD = 1.8) (Figure 5), which reflects the crystallization age of Diaoluoshan granite.

4.2. Petrogeochemical Characteristics

The SiO2 content of Diaoluoshan granite ranges from 70.7% to 76.81% (Table 2) with an average of 73.77%. The Al2O3 content ranges from 12.61% to 14.45%, and the MgO content is all less than 1%. Meanwhile, the Na2O/K2O ratio is between 0.69 and 1.04. The total content of Na2O + K2O is 7.52%–8.45%, and the K2O content is 3.69%–4.82%. The Rittmann index (σ) values range from 1.88 to 2.57. On the TAS diagram (Figure 6), all samples fall into the granite field within the subalkaline rock category. On the SiO2-K2O diagram (Figure 7), all samples belong to the high-K calc-alkaline series. The A/CNK ratio is 0.95–1.07, indicating metaluminous to weakly peraluminous characteristics.
In terms of trace elements, the Diaoluoshan pluton has a relatively low Sr content with an average of 250.9 ppm. The primitive mantle-normalized trace element spider diagram (Figure 8) shows that the pluton samples are enriched in large ion lithophile elements (LILEs) such as Rb and K, high field strength elements (HFSEs) such as Th and U, and light rare earth elements (LREEs) such as La and Ce, while strongly depleted in elements such as Ba, Ta, Nb, P, Ti, and heavy rare earth elements (HREEs) such as Dy, Ho, and Er (Table 3). Additionally, the spider diagram curves show a gradually decreasing trend towards the right. The total rare earth element (REE) content of the pluton ranges from 51.02 × 10−6 to 201.69 × 10−6, and the chondrite-normalized REE distribution pattern is a right-dipping curve (Figure 9). The LREE/HREE ratios range from 12.48 to 19.09 with an average of 15.66, and the (La/Yb)N ratios range from 25.55 to 56.08 with an average of 34.42. These characteristics indicate different degrees of fractionation between LREEs and HREEs, with weaker fractionation among HREEs than LREEs, showing HREE depletion and LREE enrichment. The δEu values range from 0.61 to 0.83 with an average of 0.7, indicating a negative Eu anomaly (Table 4).

4.3. Mineralogical Characteristics

The electron microprobe analysis data of biotite are shown in Table 5. Biotite has the distinct chemical characteristics of being rich in Al, K, and Mg, and low in Na and Mn. The Ti cation content in biotite was calculated based on 22 oxygen atoms, and the values of Fe2+ and Fe3+ were obtained using the mineral chemical calculation method of Lin et al. [33] (Table 5). The Ti cation numbers range from 0.09 to 0.22; the MF values are between 0.54 and 0.57; the values of AlVI+Fe3++Ti range from 0.32 to 0.38; the Fe2+ + Mn content is 1.01 to 1.1; the magnesium number (Mg#) is relatively high, with Mg# = Mg/(Mg + Fe2+ + Mn) ranging from 0.57 to 0.59; and the TAl (AlIV + AlVI) values are relatively high, ranging from 1.18 to 1.25. In the Mg-(AlVI + Fe3+ + Ti)-(Fe2+ + Mn) discrimination diagram for biotite types (Figure 10), all data points fall into the magnesian biotite field.

5. Discussion

5.1. Rock Type

Studies have shown that the Diaoluoshan pluton is characterized by high alkalinity and high K2O content, with K2O ranging from 3.69 to 4.82, low MgO content (0.11–0.79), and low FeO content (0.2–2.27). Additionally, the FeO/MgO ratios are all less than 10, and the FeOt/MgO ratios are also relatively low (Table 2). This feature is significantly different from the typical attribute of A-type granites, which are iron-rich (the FeOt/MgO ratio of typical A-type granites is greater than 10) [35,36]. Meanwhile, the pluton has relatively low content of Zr, Nb, Ce, Y, etc., but high Ga content. In the Zr + Nb + Ce + Y vs. FeOt/MgO discrimination diagram for A-type granites (Figure 11a), all samples fall into the fields of fractionated felsic granites (FG) and unfractionated I- and S-type granites (OGT), suggesting that Diaoluoshan granite may belong to felsic granite or I- or S-type granite. Further analysis using the 10,000 Ga/Al vs. FeO/MgO discrimination diagram (Figure 11b) shows that all samples plot in the I- or S-type granite fields, indicating that it is more likely to be classified as I-type or S-type granite.
Additionally, the A/CNK ratios of the Diaoluoshan pluton range from 0.93 to 1.1, indicating a predominance of weakly peraluminous characteristics (Table 2). With increasing SiO2 content, the P2O5 content exhibits a decreasing trend (Figure 12a), which is distinct from the typical S-type granites where P2O5 remains constant or increases with SiO2, but highly consistent with the linear negative correlation observed in metaluminous to weakly peraluminous I-type granites [37,38,39]. Moreover, samples with high Rb content in this pluton consistently correspond to high Th content, and as Rb content increases, Th content shows a synchronous increasing trend (Figure 12b), indicating a significant positive correlation between Rb and Th. This characteristic is also an important criterion for identifying fractionated I-type granites [40]. The Diaoluoshan pluton not only has high alkali content (Table 2) but also relatively high K2O content, belonging to the high-K calc-alkaline series. Based on the above characteristics, Diaoluoshan granite should be classified as a high-K calc-alkaline I-type granite rather than a strongly peraluminous S-type granite [40,41,42,43].
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Figure 11. Zr + Nb + Ce + Y vs. FeOt/MgO (a) and 10,000 Ga/Al vs. FeO/MgO (b) discrimination diagram of Diaoluoshan granite (according to Whalen et al. [44]).
Figure 11. Zr + Nb + Ce + Y vs. FeOt/MgO (a) and 10,000 Ga/Al vs. FeO/MgO (b) discrimination diagram of Diaoluoshan granite (according to Whalen et al. [44]).
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5.2. Petrogenesis and Magma Source Characteristics

The chemical characteristics of biotite in granite are important indicators for determining the nature of its magma source region [45,46], among which the magnesium number (Mg#) is often used as a key index to distinguish the attributes of magma source regions [47,48,49]. Generally speaking, biotite formed from mantle-derived magma is characterized by high Mg content, while biotite formed from crust-derived magma exhibits low Mg, high Fe, and high Al content: the MgO content of typical pure mantle-derived biotite is generally > 15%, and that of pure crust-derived biotite is mostly < 6% [50,51]. In this study, the MgO content of biotite in the Diaoluoshan pluton ranges from 12.33% to 13.13%, and the Mg# is 0.57 to 0.59, indicating that its magma source region is neither a typical pure mantle source nor a pure crustal source, but has the characteristics of crust–mantle material mixing. In addition, when the biotite samples from Diaoluoshan granite are plotted in the FeOt/(FeOt + MgO)-MgO discrimination diagram (Figure 13), all samples fall into the crust–mantle mixed source area, further confirming that the magma source region is of crust–mantle mixed origin. In the biotite MgO-FeOt-Al2O3 discrimination diagram (Figure 14), all sample points are located in the orogenic calc-alkaline granite area, and the genesis of this type of granite is usually closely related to the plate subduction tectonic setting [52,53,54]. The magma of Diaoluoshan granite is a crust–mantle mixed-origin magma formed by plate subduction driving slab rollback, which in turn induces the mixing of crustal and mantle materials.
It is generally accepted in the geological community that the magmatic origin of orogenic calc-alkaline rocks mainly involves the following three mechanisms: mantle wedge melting, lower continental crust melting, and subducted slab melting. However, actual geological processes are often more complex, mostly manifested as the superimposition of one or more of the above mechanisms: mantle wedge melting requires fluids released from the subducted slab, and the Ba/Th ratio effectively indicates subduction fluid influence. Melting from subducted sediments alone yields low Ba/Th ratios (<100), while higher ratios suggest significant subduction fluid input [57]. The Diaoluoshan pluton has Ba/Th ratios of 8–50, indicating its magma source was unaffected by subduction fluids and unrelated to mantle wedge melting. (2) Partial melting of the subducted slab typically forms magmas with adakitic characteristics [58,59]. The Diaoluoshan pluton has moderate MgO and SiO2 content, showing some similarities to magmas formed by slab melting (adakites). However, it has relatively high Y content (5.1–13.6 × 10−6), low Al2O3 content (12.61%–14.45%), and obvious negative Eu anomalies (δEu = 0.61–0.83), which are inconsistent with the typical characteristics of adakites formed by slab melting [59]. Although the magma was not directly derived from the melting of the subducted slab, the rock is enriched in large ion lithophile elements (LILEs) such as Ba and Th and depleted in high field strength elements (HFSEs) such as Ta, Nb, and Ti. Combined with the geochemical attributes of biotite, these features indicate that magma formation was influenced by plate subduction [60]. (3) The Diaoluoshan pluton is enriched in Rb, Th, K, Pb, and La and depleted in Nb and Ti, which is consistent with the geochemical characteristics of typical crustal melts [61]. However, the rock also has relatively high MgO content (0.11%–0.79%) and high Mg# values of magnesian biotite, and contains mafic microgranular enclaves. These characteristics all suggest the input of mantle-derived mafic materials during its formation, indicating that it is not pure crustal melts [62].
Based on the above analysis, this study draws the following conclusions: (1) The genetic mechanism of the Late Yanshanian Diaoluoshan pluton in Hainan Island involves the melting of the lower continental crust, influenced by the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plate and the rollback of its slab. This slab rollback triggers mantle upwelling and underplating of the lower crust, leading to the partial melting of the lower continental crust; the formed melts then mix with the uprising and underplating mantle mafic magmas, ultimately forming the pluton (Figure 15b). (2) Previous studies revealed that the mean square of weighted deviates (MSWD) for the 13 data sets is as high as 11.1, indicating significant data dispersion. Such high MSWD values typically have two possible causes: firstly, some zircons may contain inherited ancient lead, leading to an overestimated measured age; secondly, some zircons may have experienced a loss of radiogenic lead, resulting in an underestimated measured age. Considering the formation background of the Diaoluoshan intrusion, this intrusion was formed by the mixing of magma derived from partial melting of the continental lower crust and upwelling underplated mantle mafic magma (Figure 3). This complex formation process, particularly the partial melting of the continental lower crust, is highly likely to cause ancient lead incorporation into zircons. Based on this, this study prefers to argue that the older-age data (102.5 ± 2.8 Ma) is more representative of the emplacement age of the Diaoluoshan intrusion. (3) The Diaoluoshan pluton exhibits an overall east–west trending distribution (Figure 1b). Combined with the inference from the aforementioned diagenetic mechanism (Figure 15b), the Paleo-Pacific subduction zone during the late Early Cretaceous should have been located in the southern part of Hainan Island and also displayed an east–west trend (Figure 15a). Although this subduction zone may have migrated or deflected with plate movement, it is certain that the Paleo-Pacific subduction zone was situated in the southern part of Hainan Island or the area south of it during the late Early Cretaceous.

5.3. Tectonic Setting

Diaoluoshan granite is a high-K calc-alkaline I-type granite. In the R1-R2 tectonic discrimination diagram (Figure 16), most samples plot within the syn-collisional granite field, with some samples in the transitional zone between syn-collisional and post-orogenic granites. In the Y-Nb diagram (Figure 17a), all samples fall within the volcanic arc and syn-collisional granite fields, and further plotting suggests a post-collisional extensional setting (Figure 17b). The aforementioned diagrams indicate that Diaoluoshan granite may have formed in a syn-collisional environment while also being associated with an extensional setting; it is highly probable that it formed during the transition stage from a compressional to an extensional environment. This inference is consistent with the low-pressure genetic characteristics of the low-Sr and low-Y type granite. During post-collisional extensional collapse, the influx of fluids and volatiles triggered by subduction, combined with decreasing pressure, promoted partial melting of the rocks. The upwelling of the mantle and underplating of mantle-derived magmas further increased the temperature of the lower crust, intensifying the melting process [65,66,67], leading to the formation of these low-Sr and low-Y type granites under low-pressure conditions. This characteristic is consistent with the arc magmatism and back-arc magmatism in South China, which were influenced by the subduction of the Pacific Plate and persisted until ~73 Ma, indicating that the Late Yanshanian tectonics in Hainan Island, similar to those in the South China Continent, were influenced by the subduction of the Pacific Plate [68,69]. In summary, this study argues that the Late Yanshanian magmatic activity in Hainan Island was controlled by the tectonodynamic process of Paleo-Pacific Plate subduction: with the continuous evolution of subduction, slab rollback occurred, triggering mantle upwelling; the uprising mantle mafic magmas then underplated the lower crust, promoting the formation of a large amount of crust–mantle mixed-source magmas. Meanwhile, mantle upwelling caused the regional crust to be in an extensional tectonic environment. Therefore, the Late Yanshanian tectonic setting of Hainan Island should be an extensional rift environment driven by Paleo-Pacific Plate subduction and slab rollback, but without a well-developed volcanic front (Figure 15b).
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Figure 16. Diagram for distinguishing the tectonic environment of granite R1-R2 (according to Batchelor et al. [70]).
Figure 16. Diagram for distinguishing the tectonic environment of granite R1-R2 (according to Batchelor et al. [70]).
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R1 = 4Si−11 (K + Na)−2 (Ti + Fe), R2 = 6Ca + 2Mg + Al
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Figure 17. Discern diagram of tectonic environment of granite Y-Nb (a) and Y+Nb-Rb (b) (according to Pearce et al. [71]).
Figure 17. Discern diagram of tectonic environment of granite Y-Nb (a) and Y+Nb-Rb (b) (according to Pearce et al. [71]).
Minerals 15 01242 g017

6. Conclusions

The Diaoluoshan pluton is classified as a high-K calc-alkaline I-type granite, and its zircon U-Pb dating yields an age of 102.5 ± 2.8Ma, indicating that it formed in the late Early Cretaceous.
The formation of the Diaoluoshan pluton was influenced by the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plate and its slab rollback. This process caused mantle upwelling and underplating of the lower crust, leading to partial melting of the lower crust. The resulting magma then mixed with the uprising mantle mafic magma that underplated the lower crust, followed by further differentiation and evolution.
The tectonic setting of Hainan Island during the Late Yanshanian Period was an extensional rift environment driven by the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plate and its slab rollback, but without a well-developed volcanic front.
The Paleo-Pacific subduction zone was located in southern Hainan Island or its southern vicinity during the early Late Cretaceous.

Author Contributions

C.W. (Chao Wang) and D.L. designed the study. C.W. (Chao Wang) and C.W. (Changxin Wei) took the samples. C.W. (Chao Wang), D.L., C.W. (Changxin Wei), M.C., and Z.H., wrote the manuscript. M.C. and C.L. conceptualized the study. C.W. (Chao Wang), C.L., and D.L. contributed to the data analysis. D.L., C.W. (Chao Wang), C.W. (Changxin Wei) and Z.H. performed the investigation validation. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 42272222), the Hainan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 420RC744), the Key Laboratory of Marine Geological Resources and Environment of Hainan Province Project (No. HNHYDZZYHJZZ002), and the project of geological survey of China (No. 1212011220524 and No. 1212010710716).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. (a) Map of the location of Hainan Island; (b) Geological map of Hainan Island; (c) Study area.
Figure 1. (a) Map of the location of Hainan Island; (b) Geological map of Hainan Island; (c) Study area.
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Figure 2. Diaoluoshan granitic microphotograph and field photos. (a) Diaoluoshan granite rock fresh surface; (b) Xenoliths in Diaoluoshan granite; (c,e,f) Single-polarized light micrograph of Diaoluoshan granite; (d) Orthogonal-polarized light micrograph of Diaoluoshan granite. Q—quartz; Kf—K-feldspar; Pl—plagioclase; Bi—biotite; Gr—garnet.
Figure 2. Diaoluoshan granitic microphotograph and field photos. (a) Diaoluoshan granite rock fresh surface; (b) Xenoliths in Diaoluoshan granite; (c,e,f) Single-polarized light micrograph of Diaoluoshan granite; (d) Orthogonal-polarized light micrograph of Diaoluoshan granite. Q—quartz; Kf—K-feldspar; Pl—plagioclase; Bi—biotite; Gr—garnet.
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Figure 3. Zircon CL image of Diaoluoshan granite.
Figure 3. Zircon CL image of Diaoluoshan granite.
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Figure 4. Zircon U-Pb concordant age diagram of Diaoluoshan granite.
Figure 4. Zircon U-Pb concordant age diagram of Diaoluoshan granite.
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Figure 5. 206Pb/238U weighted mean ages of zircon diagram of Diaoluoshan granite.
Figure 5. 206Pb/238U weighted mean ages of zircon diagram of Diaoluoshan granite.
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Figure 6. TAS diagram of Diaoluoshan granite (after Middlemost [31]). For the Ir-Irvine boundary in the TAS diagram, the area above is alkaline, and the area below is subalkaline. (1—olivine gabbro; 2a—alkaline gabbro; 2b—subalkaline gabbro; 3—gabbro-diorite; 4—diorite; 5—granodiorite; 6—granite; 7—quartzolite; 8—monzogabbro; 9—monzodiorite; 10—monzonite; 11—quartz monzonite; 12—syenite; 13—foid gabbro; 14—foid monzodiorite; 15—foid monzosyenite; 16—foid syenite; 17—foid plutonic rock; 18—tawite/urtite/theralite).
Figure 6. TAS diagram of Diaoluoshan granite (after Middlemost [31]). For the Ir-Irvine boundary in the TAS diagram, the area above is alkaline, and the area below is subalkaline. (1—olivine gabbro; 2a—alkaline gabbro; 2b—subalkaline gabbro; 3—gabbro-diorite; 4—diorite; 5—granodiorite; 6—granite; 7—quartzolite; 8—monzogabbro; 9—monzodiorite; 10—monzonite; 11—quartz monzonite; 12—syenite; 13—foid gabbro; 14—foid monzodiorite; 15—foid monzosyenite; 16—foid syenite; 17—foid plutonic rock; 18—tawite/urtite/theralite).
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Figure 7. Diaoluoshan granite SiO2-K2O diagram (after Rickwood [32]).
Figure 7. Diaoluoshan granite SiO2-K2O diagram (after Rickwood [32]).
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Figure 8. Primitive mantle-normalized trace element spider diagram of Diaoluoshan granite.
Figure 8. Primitive mantle-normalized trace element spider diagram of Diaoluoshan granite.
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Figure 9. Chondrite-normalized REE distribution diagram of Diaoluoshan granite.
Figure 9. Chondrite-normalized REE distribution diagram of Diaoluoshan granite.
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Figure 10. Classification diagram of biotite Mg-(AlVI + Fe3+ + Ti)-(Fe2+ + Mn) (according to Foster [34]).
Figure 10. Classification diagram of biotite Mg-(AlVI + Fe3+ + Ti)-(Fe2+ + Mn) (according to Foster [34]).
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Figure 12. SiO2-P2O5 (a) and Rb-Th (b) correlation diagram of Diaoluoshan granite (according to Li et al. [40]).
Figure 12. SiO2-P2O5 (a) and Rb-Th (b) correlation diagram of Diaoluoshan granite (according to Li et al. [40]).
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Figure 13. Diagram of source area of biotite FeOt/(FeOt + MgO)-MgO (according to Zhou [55]).
Figure 13. Diagram of source area of biotite FeOt/(FeOt + MgO)-MgO (according to Zhou [55]).
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Figure 14. Diagram of biotite MgO-FeOt-Al2O3 (according to Abdelrahman [56]).
Figure 14. Diagram of biotite MgO-FeOt-Al2O3 (according to Abdelrahman [56]).
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Figure 15. (a) Regional Tectonic Location Map, Base map according to Wang et al. [63] with modifications; (b) Magmatic genesis model diagram of Diaoluoshan granite, Base map according to Liu et al. [64].
Figure 15. (a) Regional Tectonic Location Map, Base map according to Wang et al. [63] with modifications; (b) Magmatic genesis model diagram of Diaoluoshan granite, Base map according to Liu et al. [64].
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Table 1. Zircon U-Pb LA-ICP-MS dating data table of Diaoluoshan granite.
Table 1. Zircon U-Pb LA-ICP-MS dating data table of Diaoluoshan granite.
Test Spot NumberContent (ppm)Th/UIsotope RatioAge (Ma)
ThU207Pb/235U1σ206Pb/238U1σ207Pb/235U1σ206Pb/238U1σConcordance
14504261.060.10930.00480.01620.0003105.34.4103.62.098%
22566 2156 1.19 0.0985 0.0018 0.0147 0.0001 95 2 93.8 0.8 98%
3185 267 0.69 0.0936 0.0042 0.0147 0.0002 90.9 3.9 94.3 1.3 96%
4856 1194 0.72 0.1045 0.0026 0.0148 0.0002 101.0 2.4 94.4 1.1 93%
52301961.170.11080.00480.01590.00021074101.41.394%
62903280.880.10430.00450.01550.0002101499.0198%
7417 406 1.03 0.0962 0.0137 0.0147 0.0002 93.3 12.7 94.0 1.3 99%
83262831.150.10250.00430.01550.000299.14.099.31.299%
91360 3006 0.45 0.0941 0.0016 0.0143 0.0002 91.3 1.5 91.6 1.0 99%
102020 2334 0.87 0.0972 0.0019 0.0153 0.0001 94.2 1.8 97.6 0.7 96%
112412151.120.10370.00440.01530.0002100.24.197.81.297%
122271781.270.10580.00490.01570.00021025100.51.498%
134302012.130.11430.00460.01630.00021104104194%
Table 2. Major elements and CIPW standard minerals of Diaoluoshan granite.
Table 2. Major elements and CIPW standard minerals of Diaoluoshan granite.
SampleSiO2TiO2Al2O3Fe2O3FeOMnOMgOCaONa2OK2OP2O5DIA/CNKSIσARTotal AlkaliNKANa2O/K2OFeOt/MgOK2O + Na2O
D1007-172.140.2913.730.402.130.060.761.953.693.910.0884.400.996.981.982.887.600.750.943.287.60
D1386-172.910.2513.830.701.000.050.682.093.833.690.0785.930.986.871.882.797.520.741.042.407.52
D1902-175.600.1512.780.480.620.050.321.253.614.520.0391.940.983.352.023.768.130.850.803.298.13
D1952-170.640.2914.451.041.130.070.792.113.954.500.0885.740.956.922.573.088.450.790.882.628.45
D2950-173.350.2713.590.731.000.060.481.393.644.740.0789.621.004.532.313.548.380.820.773.458.38
D3124-175.380.1212.800.301.480.050.160.943.454.580.0191.541.041.601.993.818.030.830.7510.948.03
D3125-174.900.1512.850.131.880.060.220.923.444.420.0390.541.062.181.933.667.860.810.789.087.86
D3126-175.240.1413.010.091.880.050.240.813.414.680.0391.091.072.332.033.828.090.820.738.178.09
D3128-170.700.3514.340.762.270.060.722.063.434.300.1383.071.026.272.152.787.730.720.804.107.73
D6112-176.810.0912.610.540.200.030.110.853.344.820.0194.211.031.221.974.088.160.850.696.248.16
Note: the content unit of major elements is wt%, and CIPW standard minerals are:σ = (K2O + Na2O)2/(SiO2-43) (wt%), NKA = (K2O + Na2O)/Al2O3 (Molecular number), A/CNK = Al2O3/(K2O + Na2O + CaO) (Molecular number), DI = Q + Or + Ab, SI = 100MgO/(MgO + FeO + Fe2O3 + Na2O + K2O) (wt%).
Table 3. Trace element analysis of Diaoluoshan granite.
Table 3. Trace element analysis of Diaoluoshan granite.
SampleRbBaSrThUTaNbPbZrHfGaZnNiVCrCsCoLiYAuRb/Sr
D1007-1116.0445.0355.011.34.30.88.825.297.03.515.237.03.323.96.52.53.531.010.50.10.3
D1386-1115.0456.0384.010.83.00.68.9726.579.03.216.539.53.026.32.33.13.936.17.80.50.3
D1902-115.0231.0165.013.06.80.713.235.074.83.216.332.72.314.00.84.52.337.37.10.41.0
D1952-1139.0726.0394.014.59.50.710.628.8102.04.516.750.53.731.53.32.44.542.59.50.50.4
D2950-1175.0412.0284.025.64.11.519.628.7146.05.317.341.42.218.72.45.52.334.613.60.40.6
D3124-1199.0139.1145.217.36.91.112.435.368.52.912.924.54.410.110.52.11.4199.07.93.01.4
D3125-1213.0204.7159.619.47.11.115.039.978.33.414.428.04.412.310.22.51.8213.07.21.21.3
D3126-1223.0187.2157.018.27.81.113.640.978.03.313.326.618.111.840.22.11.412.96.90.41.4
D3128-1136.0581.7406.317.83.31.013.131.0141.04.617.845.210.733.426.11.84.033.613.30.50.3
D6112-1230.038.359.228.98.40.912.238.071.62.916.616.10.95.11.42.00.619.05.10.83.9
Note: The content unit of trace elements is ppm.
Table 4. Rare-earth element data for Diaoluoshan granite.
Table 4. Rare-earth element data for Diaoluoshan granite.
SampleLaCePrNdSmEuGdTbDyHoErTmYbLuREEδEuLREE/HREE(La/Yb)N
D1007-120.6041.604.5015.802.500.581.890.291.540.300.890.141.060.1891.870.7813.6127.09
D1386-119.0733.643.9614.482.490.611.880.261.420.290.840.140.950.1780.200.8312.4827.98
D1902-118.6733.123.5611.501.810.331.430.201.110.240.750.140.960.1874.000.6113.7727.11
D1952-120.3538.764.9916.532.880.692.210.321.700.350.980.171.110.1891.220.8011.9925.55
D2950-150.8678.478.6627.094.180.763.000.452.300.491.360.231.570.25179.670.6317.6245.15
D3124-121.9038.503.5011.801.600.341.230.191.020.220.660.110.850.1682.080.7117.4935.91
D3125-123.3043.104.0012.801.900.341.400.171.030.220.620.110.880.1690.030.6118.6136.90
D3126-122.1039.203.9011.801.800.341.320.200.980.210.590.120.860.1483.560.6417.9035.82
D3128-151.5092.609.3032.205.100.953.640.442.560.491.250.181.280.20201.690.6419.0956.08
D6112-116.0220.452.527.341.080.220.780.120.730.180.470.100.840.1751.020.7014.0526.58
Note: The units of rare earth element content are ppm.
Table 5. Data sheet for electron probe of rock biotite in Diaoluoshan (wt%).
Table 5. Data sheet for electron probe of rock biotite in Diaoluoshan (wt%).
SampleD5207-1D1902-1D1386-1D2821-1D5222-2D5269-2D2700-1
SiO237.4237.6336.5836.3337.0037.1037.57
TiO22.572.603.093.563.303.761.47
Al2O313.3513.5613.5513.1113.4513.0113.56
Fe2O33.373.333.354.153.734.213.26
FeO17.2217.3917.5618.4718.5317.8217.15
FeOt20.2520.3920.5722.2021.8821.6120.08
MnO0.750.760.690.230.240.160.18
MgO13.1312.8412.9512.4512.4012.7712.33
Na2O0.220.120.110.100.120.110.18
K2O10.2210.3610.2810.1910.3610.1810.40
Cation numbers and related parameters calculated based on 22 oxygen atoms
Si2.872.872.812.812.832.842.93
AlIV1.131.131.191.191.171.161.07
AlVI0.070.090.040.010.050.020.18
Ti0.150.150.180.210.190.220.09
Fe3+0.100.120.090.110.120.140.11
Fe2+1.000.991.041.091.071.001.01
Mn0.050.050.050.020.020.010.01
Mg1.501.461.491.441.421.461.43
Na0.030.020.020.010.020.020.03
K1.001.011.011.011.011.001.04
total7.907.897.917.897.887.867.89
MF0.570.560.560.540.540.560.56
AlVI + Fe3+ + Ti0.320.360.320.330.350.380.37
Fe2+ + Mn1.051.041.081.101.091.011.02
Ti/(Mg + Fe + Ti + Mn)0.050.050.060.070.070.080.03
Al/(Al + Mg + Fe + Ti + Mn + Si)0.180.180.180.170.180.170.18
Mg/(Mg + Fe2 + + Mn)0.590.580.580.570.570.590.58
Note: AlIV refers to the number of tetrahedrally coordinated cations (Al3+), and AlVI refers to the number of octahedrally coordinated cations (Al3+), MF = (Mg/(Fe3+ + Fe2+ + Mg + Mn)).
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Wang, C.; Liang, D.; Wei, C.; Chen, M.; Hu, Z.; Lv, C. Zircon U–Pb Ages and Geochemistry of Diaoluoshan Granite, Hainan Island: Implications for Late Cretaceous Tectonics in South China. Minerals 2025, 15, 1242. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15121242

AMA Style

Wang C, Liang D, Wei C, Chen M, Hu Z, Lv C. Zircon U–Pb Ages and Geochemistry of Diaoluoshan Granite, Hainan Island: Implications for Late Cretaceous Tectonics in South China. Minerals. 2025; 15(12):1242. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15121242

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wang, Chao, Dingyong Liang, Changxin Wei, Mulong Chen, Zailong Hu, and Changyan Lv. 2025. "Zircon U–Pb Ages and Geochemistry of Diaoluoshan Granite, Hainan Island: Implications for Late Cretaceous Tectonics in South China" Minerals 15, no. 12: 1242. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15121242

APA Style

Wang, C., Liang, D., Wei, C., Chen, M., Hu, Z., & Lv, C. (2025). Zircon U–Pb Ages and Geochemistry of Diaoluoshan Granite, Hainan Island: Implications for Late Cretaceous Tectonics in South China. Minerals, 15(12), 1242. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15121242

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