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Article

Closure of the Eastern Paleo-Asian Ocean: Evidence from Permian–Triassic Volcanic Rocks in the Northern Margin of the North China Craton

by
Jixiang Xue
1,
Yi Shi
2,3,*,
Zhenghong Liu
4 and
Linfu Xue
4
1
School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
2
School of Resource Environment and Safety Engineering, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China
3
Hunan Key Laboratory of Rare Metal Minerals Exploitation and Geological Disposal of Wastes, Hengyang 421001, China
4
College of Earth Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130061, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2023, 13(5), 606; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13050606
Submission received: 13 March 2023 / Revised: 19 April 2023 / Accepted: 24 April 2023 / Published: 27 April 2023
(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Geochemistry and Geochronology)
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Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) is the world’s largest accretionary orogenic belt, and its formation is related to the closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean (PAO). However, the closure time and style of the PAO remain controversial. To address these issues, this paper presents zircon U-Pb dating, whole-rock geochemistry and zircon Lu-Hf isotope analyses of the volcanic rocks in the Faku-Kaiyuan area on the northern margin of the North China Craton. The results show that the Bachagou andesites formed in the Early Permian (287 ± 2 Ma), while the Chaijialing andesites and dacites formed in the Late Permian (253.3 ± 3.7 Ma) and Middle Triassic (244.3 ± 1.3 Ma), respectively. The Bachagou andesites and Chaijialing andesites are enriched in LILEs and LREEs and depleted in HFSEs and HREEs, indicating that they formed in the active continental margins. The Chaijialing dacites show similar geochemical signatures to adakite and formed in a syn-collisional setting. Geochemistry and isotopic analysis indicates that the Bachagou andesites were derived from a partial melting of the mantle wedge that was metasomatized by subduction fluids. The Chaijialing andesites were generated from a metasomatized mantle by slab-derived and sediment fluids. The Chaijialing dacites formed by a partial melting of thickened lower crust. Combined with previous research results, we can conclude that the Eastern PAO closed by a scissor-like movement from west to east during the Late Permian–Middle Triassic.

1. Introduction

The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) is considered the largest accretionary orogen in the world, stretching from the Urals in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east, and crossing the core of the Eurasian continent in an east-west direction [1,2,3,4,5]. It is located between the Siberian Craton to the north and the Tarim and North China Craton (NCC) to the south [6,7,8,9,10] (Figure 1a). Northeast China is located in the eastern part of the CAOB [11,12]. Its tectonic evolution is controlled by the Paleo-Asian Ocean (PAO) regime during the Paleozoic, and is related to the Pacific Ocean and Mongol–Okhotsk Ocean regimes during the Mesozoic–Cenozoic [10,11,12,13,14,15]. PAO opened in the Meso–Neoproterozoic in relation to the break-up of the Rodinia supercontinent, then underwent complicated subduction–collision processes including slab subduction, multiple accretions of arc/back-arc systems, and ophiolite and microcontinental fragment amalgamation, eventually assembling into the largest Phanerozoic accretionary orogenic belt, the CAOB [16,17,18]. Northeast China is composed of several microcontinents, including the Erguna Block in the northwest, the Xing’an Block and Songliao-Xilinhot Block in the middle, and the Jiamusi Block and Nadanhada Terrane in the east [3,4,5,19]. These microcontinents successively joined along the Xilin-Xiguitu, Hehei-Hegenshan and Mudanjiang-Yilan suture zones and finally collided with the North Craton along the Solonker-Xar Moron-Changchun-Yanji suture (SXCYS) (Figure 1b). The eastern section of the northern margin of the NCC is located in the southeastern part of the CAOB. Late Paleozoic-Early Mesozoic magmatic activity in this area is voluminous. Intrusive and volcanic rocks are widely distributed, providing strong clues to reveal the tectonic evolution of the eastern part of the northern margin of the NCC [20].
However, due to the geodynamic transition from the Paleo-Asian to the Pacific tectonic domain in the northeast since the Mesozoic, pre-Mesozoic igneous rocks in the region have undergone extensive metamorphism and deformation due to complex tectonic events, thus leaving many controversies, including the subduction polarity, final closure time, closure location and closure style of the Paleo-Asian Ocean (PAO). The final closure time of the PAO along the Solonker-Xar Moron-Changchun-Yanji suture (SXCYS) is the most controversial. Most researchers accept that the final closure of the eastern section of the PAO probably occurred during the Permian to Triassic [21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30], other views of the final closure time are Middle-Late Devonian to Early Carboniferous [12,31,32]. In addition, the style of the PAO closure is debated. Some researchers propose that the PAO closed in a scissor-like style from west to east during the Late Permian–Middle Triassic [5,33,34], while others suggest that the PAO closed synchronously [35,36,37]. The closure time and style of the PAO are important for understanding the geological reconstructions of the East Asian blocks in the assembly of the Pangea supercontinent and the Caledonian orogeny.
More research is needed to arrive at a definitive conclusion regarding the final closure time and style of this ocean. The Late Paleozoic-Early Mesozoic intrusions in the Faku-Kaiyuan area have been well studied [15,26,27,30,38,39,40], whereas the Late Paleozoic volcanic rocks in the study area have received little attention [26,41]. This paper presents zircon U-Pb dating, Hf isotope, geochemical and petrological data from volcanic rocks in the Faku-Kaiyuan study area, NE China. It also combines previous research results and data to more tightly constrain the closure time and style of the eastern Paleo-Asian Ocean.
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Figure 1. (a) Tectonic sketch map of Asia. Modified after Guan et al. [29]. (b) Simplified tectonic map of NE China showing the main tectonic subdivisions. Modified after Liu et al. [4]. EB: Erguna Block; XB: Xing’an Block; SXB: Songliao-Xilinhot Block; JB: Jiamusi Block; KB: Khanka Block; NT: Nadanhada Terrane; NMNCC: North margin of NCC; MOS: Mongol-Okhotsk Suture; PAS: Paleo-Asian Suture; PTS: Paleo-Tethys Ocean; HHS: Heihe-Hegenshan Suture; MYS: Mudanjiang-Yilan Suture; SXCYS-Solonker-Xar Moron-Changchun-Yanji Suture; XXS: Xinlin-Xiguitu Suture; 1-Derbugan Fault; 2-Nenjiang-Balihan Fault; 3-Songliao Basin Central Fault; 4-Yitong-Yilan Fault; 5-Dunhua-Mishan Fault; 6-Yujinshan Fault; 7-Chifeng-Kaiyuan Fault.”
Figure 1. (a) Tectonic sketch map of Asia. Modified after Guan et al. [29]. (b) Simplified tectonic map of NE China showing the main tectonic subdivisions. Modified after Liu et al. [4]. EB: Erguna Block; XB: Xing’an Block; SXB: Songliao-Xilinhot Block; JB: Jiamusi Block; KB: Khanka Block; NT: Nadanhada Terrane; NMNCC: North margin of NCC; MOS: Mongol-Okhotsk Suture; PAS: Paleo-Asian Suture; PTS: Paleo-Tethys Ocean; HHS: Heihe-Hegenshan Suture; MYS: Mudanjiang-Yilan Suture; SXCYS-Solonker-Xar Moron-Changchun-Yanji Suture; XXS: Xinlin-Xiguitu Suture; 1-Derbugan Fault; 2-Nenjiang-Balihan Fault; 3-Songliao Basin Central Fault; 4-Yitong-Yilan Fault; 5-Dunhua-Mishan Fault; 6-Yujinshan Fault; 7-Chifeng-Kaiyuan Fault.”
Minerals 13 00606 g001

2. Geological Setting and Sample Descriptions

The northern margin of the NCC is extensive, occupying a large area between the Chifeng-Kaiyuan fault and the Xar Moron-Changchun-Yanji suture zone (Figure 2a). The Faku-Kaiyuan study area is located in northern Liaoning, geotectonically in the eastern section of the northern margin of the NCC, the southern margin of the Songliao Basin, and south of the Solonker-Xar Moron-Changchun- Yanji suture zone, with the Faku study area to the west of the Yilan-Yitong Fault and the Kaiyuan study area to the east of the Yilan-Yitong Fault (Figure 2a). The region is characterised by large volumes of volcanic-sedimentary successions. Regional large ductile shear zones were developed in the study area mainly during the Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic. The geological units in the study area were subjected to intense metamorphism and deformation before the Mesozoic. Late Paleozoic-Mesozoic magmatism in the study area was relatively common, including Permian–Triassic intermediate and felsic rocks. Sedimentary outcrops are dominated by Late Paleozoic-Mesozoic strata, mainly including the Quantou Formation, the Yixian Formation, the Haifanggou Formation, the Tongjiatun Formation, the Zhaobeishan Formation (Figure 2b,c). The Tongjiatun Formation is mainly composed of andesites, dacites and gneisses.
The field survey and petrographic study were carried out on the Permian–Triassic volcanic rocks of the Tongjiatun Formation in the Faku-Kaiyuan area. Bachagou andesite samples BTZ1 (123.22° E, 42.58° N) were collected from Faku County, Liaoning Province (Figure 2b). The andesites are dark gray in colour and show anisotropy (Figure 3a). The BTZ1 andesites show porphyritic texture with 10% phenocrysts. The phenocrysts are mainly plagioclase (6%) and biotite (4%). The groundmass (90%) is predominantly cryptocrystalline and includes plagioclase. The plagioclase porphyroclasts and matrix grains are almost aligned (Figure 3b).
Chaijialing andesite samples QC05-1 (124.36° E, 42.54° N) were collected from Kaiyuan County, Liaoning Province (Figure 2c). The andesites are dark gray in colour and display a vesicular-amygdaloidal structure (Figure 3c). The andesites show porphyritic texture with 20% phenocrysts. The phenocrysts are mainly composed of plagioclase and orthoclase. The groundmass (80%) includes plagioclase, biotite, quartz, accessory magnetite, and epidote. The groundmass shows pilotaxitic texture (Figure 3d).
Chaijialing dacite samples QC04 (124.37° E, 42.55° N) were collected from Kaiyuan County, Liaoning Province (Figure 2c). The dacites are off-white and display a fluidal structure (Figure 3e). The dacites show porphyritic texture with 10% phenocrysts. The phenocrysts are mainly composed of biotite (10%). The groundmass (90%) is primarily cryptocrystalline and shows a felsitic texture (Figure 3f).

3. Analytical Methods

3.1. Zircon U-Pb Dating

Zircon crystals from samples BTZ1 were separated from whole-rock samples at the Langfang Regional Geological Survey, Hebei Province. Cathodoluminescence (CL) imaging was conducted at the Beijing SHRIMP centre, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, to reveal the inner structures of zircon.
Zircon SHRIMP U-Pb isotopic analyses of samples BTZ1 were conducted at the Beijing SHRIMP Centre, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences. Using the SHRIMP II instrument and following the analytical procedures and principles outlined by Claoue-Long et al. [42]. An ion flux of O2- was −7.5 nA and 10 kV. The ion beam diameter was about 23 μm and the mass resolution was about 5000 (1% peak height). The Temora-2 (TEM) standard zircon (with a known age of 417 Ma) was used to correct for inter-element fractionation, and Pb/U corrections were made using the formula Pb/U = A(UO/U)2 [42]. TEM measurement was taken after every three sample analyses. The data obtained were then processed using Ludwig’s SQUID1.0 and Isoplot software package [43]. 204Pb data have been subjected to common Pb corrections. 206Pb/238U ages are applied to zircons with U-Pb ages less than 1000 Ma. 1-sigma errors in the table are used for individual data, and the weighted average age error is given at a 95% confidence interval.
Zircon separation of the samples QC05-2 and QC04 was carried out at Keda Rock Mineral Separation Company in Langfang City, Hebei Province, China. Samples underwent initial crushing before separation using both gravity and magnetic techniques. Following separation, selected zircon samples were mounted on an epoxy disc and polished to expose their surfaces. Once properly prepared, the zircon was photographed in both reflected and transmitted light. A JSM6510 SEM (JEOL, Tokyo, Japan) with a Gatan CL detector attached was then used to capture cathodoluminescence (CL) images.
Zircon U-Pb isotopic analyses of the samples QC05-2 and QC04 were conducted by laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass (LA-ICP-MS) at the Key Laboratory of Mineral Resources Evolution in Northeast Asia, Ministry of Land and Resources of China, Jilin University, China, using an Agilent 7500a ICP-MS (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) and a GeoLas 200M 193 nm ArF excimer laser ablation system (MicroLas, Göttingen, Germany). A detailed description of the U-Pb isotope with a beam diameter of 30 μm was provided. Each spot analysis consisted of approximately 30 s of background acquisition (gas blank) followed by a 40 s data acquisition from the sample. After analysing every five samples, we took measurements of three international standards: Harvard reference zircon 91500, NIST SRM 610, and Australian Macquarie University zircon GJ-1. Harvard zircon 91500 was used as an external standard to normalize isotopic fractionation during analysis. The NIST SRM 610 glass was used as an external standard to calculate unknowns’ U, Th, and Pb concentrations. Quantitative calibrations were undertaken using ICPMSDataCal software (version 10.9) [44]. All data were processed using Isoplot software [43].

3.2. Whole-Rock Geochemistry

Major and trace element analyses were conducted at ALS Minerals-ALS Chemex (Guangzhou) Co., Guangzhou, China. Major oxides were determined by X-ray fluorescence (PANalytical Axios, Almelo, Netherlands). Trace elements were analysed by an X-series inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometer (ICP-MS; Agilent 7700x, CA, USA). Precision and accuracy are better than 5% for major elements and 10% for trace elements.

3.3. Zircon Hf Isotope Analysis

In-situ zircon Lu-Hf isotopic analyses were conducted using a Neptune mullticollector ICPMS with a 193-nm laser sampling system at the State Key Laboratory for Endogenic Metal Deposits Research, Nanjing University. The main parameters are as follows. The laser spot diameter was 60 μm, the pulse width was 15 ns, and the ablation material carrier gas was He. Standard samples, i.e., 91500 and MT zircons, were measured after the analysis of every 10 samples. The ratio of 176Hf/177Hf for the 91500 and MT zircons was 0.282316 ± 30 and 0.282507 ± 50, respectively. For εHf(t) and model age calculations, the 176Ludecay constant was 1.867 × 10−11/year [45], and the ratios of 176Lu/177Hf and 176Hf/177Hf for present chondrite and depleted mantle were 0.0332 and 0.282772 [46] and 0.0384 and 0.28325 [47], respectively. In addition, an average crustal value of 176Lu/177Hf = 0.015 was used to calculate the crustal model ages [48].

3.4. Method of Crustal Thickness Estimation

Several studies show that geochemical indices (Sr/Y, (La/Yb)N, Eu/Eu* in Zircon) can be used to quantitatively estimate crustal thickness in subduction and collisional settings [49,50,51,52,53]. Empirical fits of Sr/Y and (La/Yb)N to crustal thickness [51] are modelled by:
Sr/Y = 0.9dm − 7.25
(La/Yb)N = 0.98e0.047dm
where Sr/Y and (La/Yb)N are whole-rock average ratios (and the subscript ‘N’ for La/Yb implies that the ratios were normalized to chondritic values of Sun and McDonough, 1989), and dm = crustal thickness or depth to Moho. During the Permian–Triassic, the northern margin of the NCC underwent subduction and collisional processes. We collected geochemical data on the Permian–Triassic igneous rocks in the Faku-Kaiyuan area. We filtered the data by SiO2 (55–68%), MgO (<4%) and Rb/Sr (0.05–0.2) to eliminate mafic rocks generated in the mantle and high silica granites. Filtering reduced the number of suitable samples from 263 to 65.

4. Results

4.1. Zircon U-Pb Geochronology

Zircon U-Pb geochronology data and CL images for the volcanic rocks are listed in Figures S1–S3. Zircon grains from Bachagou andesite samples BTZ1 are euhedral to subhedral. They show prismatic to ellipsoid forms (50–100μm) with aspect ratios of 1:1–3:1. Most zircon grains from this sample show fine-scale oscillatory growth zoning in CL images (Figure 4a). Their Th/U ratios range from 0.45 to 0.79, consistent with a magmatic origin [54]. Their 206Pb/238U ages have a weighted-mean age of 287 ± 2 Ma (MSWD = 1.5, N = 11) (Figure 4b,c).
Zircon grains from Chaijialing andesite samples QC05-1 are euhedral to subhedral. They show prismatic to ellipsoid forms (50–250μm) with aspect ratios of 1:1–3:1. Most zircon grains from this sample show fine-scale oscillatory growth zoning in CL images (Figure 4d). Six analytical spots on zircon grains yield concordant 206Pb/238U ages between 2577 and 2401 Ma with a weighted mean age of 2498 ± 33 Ma. Their Th/U ratios range from 0.05 to 1.1, consistent with a magmatic origin [54]. We interpret the ages from the six grains as representing the crystallization ages of inherited zircons. Two other analytical spots yield concordant 206Pb/238U ages of 253 and 252 Ma with a weighted mean of 253.3 ± 3.7 Ma, close to the crystallization ages of the Chaijialing dacite samples QC04 (Figure 4e,f).
Zircon grains from Chaijialing dacite samples QC04 are euhedral to subhedral. They show prismatic to ellipsoid forms (50–200 μm) with aspect ratios of 1:1–2:1. Most of the zircon grains from this sample show fine-scale oscillatory zoning in CL images (Figure 4g). Th/U ratios of most grains range between 0.29 and 0.87 (except 2.4), typical values for magmatic zircon [54]. Their 206Pb/238U ages have a weighted-mean age of 244.3 ± 1.3 Ma (MSWD = 1.9, N = 15) (Figure 4h,i).

4.2. Whole-Rock Major and Trace Element Compositions

The major and trace element data for the volcanic rocks are presented in Table S3. These results provide valuable insights into the tectonic setting.
The Bachagou andesite samples BTZ1 record 51.7–60.8% of SiO2, 15.9–19.1% of Al2O3, 2.4–2.8% of MgO, with K2O < Na2O and Mg# of 40.7–68.1. The andesite samples BTZ1 plot in the field of andesite and trachy-andesite on a total alkali versus SiO2 (TAS) diagram (Figure 5b). The rocks belong to the calc-alkaline to high-k calc-alkaline series on the K2O versus SiO2 diagram (Figure 5c) and show metaluminous to peraluminous signatures on an A/NK versus A/CNK diagram (Figure 5d).
The Bachagou andesite samples BTZ1 have ΣREE contents of 97.7–141.9 ppm. On the chondrite-normalized REE diagram, they are characterized by enrichment in light rare earth elements (LREEs; (La/Yb)N = 4–4.4) and depletion in heavy rare earth elements (HREEs) (Figure 6a). On a primitive-mantle-normalized trace element diagram, the samples show enrichment in large ion lithophile elements (LILEs; e.g., Ba and K) and depletion in high field strength elements (HFSEs; e.g., Nb, Ta, Ti, P) (Figure 6b).
The Chaijialing andesite samples QC05-2 record 57.7–60.9% of SiO2, 15.3–16.5% of Al2O3, 4.7–5.2% of MgO, 4.5–5.2% of CaO, with K2O < Na2O and Mg# of 60.6–65.8. The andesite samples plot in the field of andesite on a Nb/Y versus (Zr/TiO2) × 0.0001 diagram (Figure 5a). The rocks belong to the calc-alkaline to high-k calc-alkaline series on the K2O versus SiO2 diagram (Figure 5c) and show metalunminous signatures on an A/NK versus A/CNK diagram (Figure 5d).
The Chaijialing andesite samples QC05-2 yield intermediate total REE concentrations (ΣREE = 109.9 ppm–119.7 ppm) and lack Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.9–1). On the chondrite-normalized REE diagram, they are characterized by enrichment in LREEs ((La/Yb)N = 8.8–9.2) and depletion in HREEs (Figure 6a). On a primitive-mantle-normalized trace element diagram, the samples show enrichment in LILEs (Sr, K) and depletion in HFSEs (Nb, Th, P, Ti) (Figure 6b).
The Chaijialing dacite samples QC04 record 67.2–68.1% of SiO2, 15.7–15.9% of Al2O3, 1.2–1.4% of MgO, with K2O < Na2O and Mg# of 42.1–44.9. The dacite samples plot in the field of dacite on a total alkali versus SiO2 (TAS) diagram (Figure 5b). The rocks belong to the high-k calc-alkaline series on the K2O versus SiO2 diagram (Figure 5c) and show weak peraluminous signatures on an A/NK versus A/CNK diagram (Figure 5d).
The Chaijialing dacite samples QC04 have ΣREE contents of 93.1–105.5 ppm and Eu anomalies values of 0.9–1.1. The dacites samples contain high Sr (424–478 ppm) and low Y (10.8–11.2 ppm) and Yb (0.86–0.89 ppm), similar to the geochemical characteristics of the typical adakites [59,60]. On the chondrite-normalized REE diagram, they are characterized by enrichment in light REE ((La/Yb)N = 15.60–16.89) and depletion in heavy REE (Figure 6a). On a primitive mantle-normalized trace element diagram, the samples show enrichment in LILEs (Ba, Sr, K) and depletion in HFSEs (Nb, P, Ti) (Figure 6b).
Minerals 13 00606 g006 550
Figure 6. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns (a) and primitive mantle-normalized trace-element variation diagrams (b) for the Early Permian–Middle Triassic volcanic rocks in the Faku-Kaiyuan area. Chondrite-normalized and primitive mantle-normalized values are from Sun & McDonough [61].
Figure 6. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns (a) and primitive mantle-normalized trace-element variation diagrams (b) for the Early Permian–Middle Triassic volcanic rocks in the Faku-Kaiyuan area. Chondrite-normalized and primitive mantle-normalized values are from Sun & McDonough [61].
Minerals 13 00606 g006

4.3. Zircon Lu-Hf Isotopes

The Lu-Hf isotopic composition of zircons from the Bachagou andesite sample BTZ1 is presented in Table S4. Seven zircon grains from the Bachagou andesite samples BTZ1 were analyzed for Lu-Hf isotopic compositions. The crystallisation age of the Bachagou andesites is 287 Ma, and the zircon grains have initial 176Hf/177Hf ratios of 0.2829–0.2931, 176Lu/177Hf ratios of 0.0024–0.0034 and εHf(t) values of 9.4 to 15.7, with corresponding TDM1 and TDM2 ages of 566–293 Ma and 683–302 Ma, respectively (Figure 7).

4.4. Crustal Thickness Estimation

The calculated crustal thickness based on the (La/Yb)N and Sr/Y ratios correlates 0.87:1, indicating a strong positive correlation between these two variables. This suggests that the (La/Yb)N and Sr/Y ratios provide a reliable method of quantifying crustal thickness. Crustal thickening commenced during the Early-Middle Permian period (290–260 Ma), with the maximum thickness (−70 km) achieved during the Late Permian–Middle Triassic (260–230 Ma).

5. Discussion

5.1. Early Permian–Middle Triassic Magmatism in the Faku-Yanji Area

Based on the rock associations and location, our zircon U-Pb data, are consistent with previously obtained ages, which indicate that Permian–Triassic magmatism in the Faku-Yanji area occurred in three periods (Figure 8): (1) Early Permian (293–273 Ma); (2) Middle-Late Permian (270–252 Ma); (3) Latest Late Permian–Middle Triassic (251–240 Ma) (Table S5).
Early Permian (293–273 Ma) magmatism occurred sporadically along the SXCYS and produced dominantly intermediate-felsic volcanic and intrusive rocks [10,26,27,39,63,64,65,66,67,68] (Figure 8 and Figure 9), such as the Daheshen dacite and rhyolite (293–279 Ma, [64]), the Faku dacite and rhyolite (274–275 Ma, [68]), the Hahushuo monzogranite and Hetun syenogranite (276–283 Ma, [26]). The Bachagou andesite (287 Ma, this study) shows fine-scale oscillatory growth zoning and high Th/U ratios, consistent with a magmatic origin, indicating that it represents Early Permian magmatism.
Middle-Late Permian (270–252 Ma) magmatism was widespread in the Faku-Yanji area and produced bimodal igneous assemblages [10,15,25,26,28,29,34,36,38,39,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78] (Figure 8 and Figure 9). Within the Faku-Yanji area, typical plutons of this period include the Mengjiagou gabbro-diorite (266 Ma, [28]), the central Jilin gabbro (260–257 Ma, [66]), the Yanbian gabbro (257–254 Ma, [66]), the northwestern Liaoning Gabbro (257–252 Ma, [15]), the Liaoyuan granite and granodiorite (259–251 Ma, [73]), and the Daheishan andesite and rhyolite (255–254 Ma, [74]). Weighted average ages of the Chaijialing andesite fall into two groups: 2498 Ma and 253 Ma, of which the former represents the crystallization ages of inherited zircons and the latter represents the formation age of the andesite. The Seluohe andesite (252 Ma, [70]), Faku andesite (266 Ma, [68]), and Liaoyuan granite (257 Ma and 252 Ma, [73]) in the Faku-Yanji also have two age populations of Middle-Late Permian and Neoarchean-Paleoproterozic (1.8 Ga or 2.5 Ga), indicating the Chaijialing andesite presents Middle-Late Permian magmatism.
The latest Late Permian–Middle Triassic (251–240 Ma) magmatism was widespread in the Faku-Yanji area and produced dominantly intermediate-felsic volcanic and intrusive rocks [10,26,28,35,36,38,39,40,63,64,65,69,72,73,78,79,80,81,82] (Figure 8 and Figure 9), such as the Faku granite and monzonite (249–248 Ma, 35), the Yanbian tonalite and monzogranite (249–248 Ma, [81]), and the Hunchun diorite (241–240 Ma, [78]). The Chaijialing dacite (244 Ma, this study) zircon shows fine-scale oscillatory growth zoning and high Th/U ratios, consistent with a magmatic origin, indicating that it represents the latest Late Permian–Middle Triassic magmatism.

5.2. The Nature of Magma Source

5.2.1. Origin of the Bachagou Andesites

The Bachagou andesites have low SiO2, high MgO, TiO2 and Fe2O3 contents. These features are different from those of crust-derived melts but close to those with a mantle source [83]. The Lu/Yb and Rb/Sr ratios of the andesites range from 0.1487 to 0.1539 and 0.066 to 0.151, respectively, which are close to the Lu/Yb (0.14 to 0.15) and Rb/Sr (0.03 to 0.047) of mantle-derived magma compared to the Lu/Yb (0.16 to 0.18) and Rb/Sr (>0.5) of crustal-derived magma [61,83].
The magma source can be further constrained using zircon Hf isotopic data [84]. Zircons from the Bachagou andesites yield positive εHf(t) values (9.4–15.7), indicating that the magma source has a mantle signature.

5.2.2. Origin of the Chaijialing Andesites

The Chaijialing andesites yield relatively low SiO2 and high MgO, Cr and Mg# (60.59–65.78). They are different from magmas produced by the partial melting of basaltic lower crustal materials, which show Mg# < 45 [85]. The Lu/Yb and Rb/Sr ratios of the meta and site range from 0.1508–0.1543 and 0.09–0.13, respectively, which are close to the Lu/Yb and Rb/Sr of mantle-derived magma [61,83]. Our data suggest that the magma source of the Chaijialing andesites has a mantle signature.

5.2.3. Origin of the Chaijialing Dacites

The Chaijialing dacites yield relatively high SiO2 and Al2O3 contents and low MgO, TiO2, and FeOT contents, which are similar to the average continental crustal chemistry. The Mg# content of the dacite ranges from 42.05 to 44.88, which is close to the Mg# content of the magma produced by the partial melting of basaltic lower crustal materials (Mg# < 45) [85]. The Zr/Hf and Lu/Yb ratios of the dacite range from 38.54 to 39.3 and 0.1573 to 0.1628, respectively, which are close to the Zr/Hf (35.5) and Lu/Yb (0.16–0.18) of the crustal-derived magma [61,83]. In summary, the magma source of the dacite is probably of crustal origin, with minor additions of mantle-derived material.

5.3. Petrogenesis

5.3.1. The Bachagou Andesites

Several magmatic processes have been proposed to explain the formation of andesite, including (1) Fractional crystallization of mantle-derived basaltic magma [86], (2) Mixing between crust-derived felsic and mantle-derived mafic magmas [87], (3) Partial melting of the mantle wedge [88], (4) Partial melting of the lower crustal materials [89].
The Early Permian volcanic rocks in the Faku-Kaiyuan study area mainly consist of andesite and basaltic andesite, with minor dacite and rhyolite but no large-scale basaltic magmatic rocks. This indicates that the Bachagou andesites did not form by the fractional crystallization of mantle-derived basaltic magma. If the magma had mixed with crustal material, one would expect a La/Sm ratio above 5 [90]. However, the Bachagou andesites have La/Sm ratios of 3.45 to 3.82, suggesting no significant crustal contamination. The Lu/Yb and Rb/Sr ratios of the Bachagou andesites are close to the corresponding ratios of the mantle-derived magma [61,83], indicating that the Bachagou andesites did not form by partial melting of the lower crustal materials.
The andesites are enriched in LREEs and LILEs and depleted in HREEs and HFSEs, indicating that they are formed by the partial melting of a mantle wedge previously metasomatized by subduction fluids and melt [91]. A host of well-documented elemental ratios can monitor potential fluid or sediment contributions to magma sources, including Ba/La, Th/Yb, and Th/Nb [92]. In both (Hf/Sm)N versus (Ta/La)N and Th/Yb versus Ba/La diagrams, the Bachagou andesites are shown to be associated with subduction fluid metasomatism, indicating that the andesites formed by partial melting of the mantle wedge metasomatized by subduction fluids (Figure 10a,b).

5.3.2. The Chaijialing Andesites

High-Mg andesites (HMAs) are characterized by higher contents of MgO (>5%), Ni and Cr, low contents of Al2O3 (<16%) and CaO (<10%), and low FeOT/MgO [93]. The Chaijialing andesites are consistent with the geochemistry of high-Mg andesites (HMAs) [66,94]. In a SiO2 versus FeOtot/MgO diagram, the andesite samples are located in the high-Mg andesite field (Figure 11a). High-Mg andesites are divided into four classes: adakites, bajaites, boninites, and sanukitoids [95]. The Sr content of the andesites ranges from 484 to 681 ppm, and the Ba content ranges from 336 to 684 ppm, which is inconsistent with the bajaite, which has very high Sr and Ba contents (Ba > 1000 ppm, Sr > 1000 ppm) [96,97]. Typical boninite yields low TiO2 content (<0.5%) and a U-shaped distribution pattern of rare earth elements [98], whereas the andesites have moderate TiO2 content (0.89%–0.96%), and the distribution pattern of rare earth elements is right-sloping. The andesites plot in the field of the sanukitic HMAs on a Sr/Y versus Y diagram (Figure 11b). The andesites yield high MgO and Y contents and low S/Y ratios, which are inconsistent with the geochemical features of the adakites. Our data indicate that the andesites are more consistent with the sanukitoids than the adakitic HMAs.
The sanukitic high-Mg andesites may form in the following situations: (1) Partial melting of mantle peridotites induced by water-bearing fluids from the dehydration of the oceanic crust [95,96,97,98,99,100], (2) Partial melting of mantle peridotites prompted by the addition of aqueous fluids released from subducting slab to the mantle wedge [101], (3) Melting of subducted sediments and subsequent melt-mantle interaction [101,102], (4) Magma mixing and hybridization at the crustal level [103,104,105].
Most models of sanukitic magma genesis suggest heterogeneity in the mantle source due to (1) differences in plate composition (altered oceanic crust and sediment, or a combination of both) and (2) different transport matrices (aqueous fluids and melts, or a combination of both) [102,103]. The metasomatic agent may leave distinctive trace elemental and isotopic patterns in the metasomatized mantle. The andesites show the possibility of being influenced by both subduction fluids and subduction melts in a (Hf/Sm)N versus (Ta/La)N (Figure 12a). Nd has a much higher solubility than Hf in the fluids [106,107], the Chaijialing andesite show high Nd (19.5–21.1) and low Hf (3.9–4.2) contents in favour of the hydrous conditions. The fluid is possibly derived from the subduction sediment or oceanic crust, the Chaijialing andesite samples have a positive correlation between Ba/Nb and Ba/La ratios, indicating the magma was likely to have the involvement of the slab-derived fluids (Figure 12b). The presence of Neoarchean inherited zircons (2.5 Ga) of the Chaijialing dacites, which properly came from the basement of NCC, supports contamination by sediments [108]. If the magma is mixed with crustal material as it rises, the La/Sm ratio rises rapidly, typically above 5 [90]. The andesites yield La/Sm ratios of 5.08 to 5.22, indicating that the source rocks may have been mixed with crustal material.
In summary, our data indicate that the andesites were generated from a metasomatized mantle by slab-derived and sediment fluids, with their source magma mixing with crustal material during ascent.

5.3.3. The Chaijialing Dacites

Adakites are usually a set of intermediate-felsic igneous rocks with unique chemical compositions, such as high SiO2 (>56%) and Al2O3 (>15%) contents, low MgO (<3%) contents, low Y and HREEs contents (Y ≤ 18 ppm, Yb ≤ 1.9 ppm), high Sr (>400 ppm) contents, Sr/Y and (La/Yb)N ratios [111,112]. Adakites play a vital role in recognizing geodynamic processes owing to their unique geochemical features. The Chajialing dacites are consistent with the geochemistry of adakite [60]. Various petrogenetic mechanisms for adakite generation have been proposed, including: (1) melting of the subducted young and hot oceanic crust [111,112,113]; (2) fractional crystallization from parental basaltic magmas [114,115]; (3) partial melting of the delaminated lower continental crust [116,117]; (4) partial melting of the thickened lower crust [118,119].
The Chaijialing dacites yield high SiO2, low MgO, Cr, and Ni concentrations, similar to the adakites derived from the thickened lower crust. In contrast, subduction-related and delamination-related adakites are distinguished by high MgO concentrations and Mg# values [112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119]. Basaltic magma must undergo sufficient fractional crystallization to form felsic magmas, but coeval basaltic rocks are uncommon in the Faku-Yanji area (Figure 8) [112]. The Chaijialing dacite samples plot in the field of the thick lower crust-related adakites in Th versus Rb/Sr and TiO2 versus SiO2 diagrams (Figure 13a,b). In addition, the crustal thickness calculated on Sr/Y and (La/Yb)N ratios reach a high value of about 70 km. In summary, the Chaijialing dacites likely formed by partial melting of the thickened lower crust.

5.4. Tectonic Setting

5.4.1. Early Permian (293–273 Ma) Tectonic Evolution

The Bachagou andesites are enriched in LILEs and LREEs and depleted in HREEs and HFSEs, showing the characteristics of active continental margin volcanic rocks. The andesites plot in the field of active continental arc, and the Early Permian mafic-intermediate rocks of the Faku-Yanji study area also plot in the field of active continental arc in a Th/Yb versus Ta/Yb diagram (Figure 14a). In addition, the Early Permian felsic rocks of the Faku-Yanji study area mostly plot in the field of the VAG in a Ta versus Yb diagram (Figure 14c).
Based on previous research results, the Early Permian volcanic rock assemblage of the study area is primarily composed of rhyolite, basaltic andesite, andesite and dacite, accompanied by a series of intrusive rock assemblages dominated by tonalite, monzogranite and granodiorite (Table S5), similar to those of active continental margins [121]. In summary, the eastern section of the north margin of NCC was formed in an active continental margin setting.
Minerals 13 00606 g014 550
Figure 14. (a) Th/Yb versus Ta/Yb diagrams of the Bachagou andesites and Chaijialing andesites; (b) La/Yb versus Th/Yb diagrams of the Bachagou andesites and Chaijialing andesites; (c) Ta versus Yb diagrams of the Chaijialing dacites; and (b) Sr/Y versus Y diagrams of the Bachagou andesites, the Chaijialing andesites and dacites, (a) modified after Pearce and Peate [109]; (b) modified after Shervais [122]; (c) modified after Pearce et al. [123]; (d) modified after Defant and Drummond [111]. VAG-volcanic-arc granite; Syn-CLOG-syn-collision granite; WPG-within plate granite; ORG-ocean-ridge granite. Data are from the literature [26,28,29,35,38,41,64,65,68,70,71,72,78,79,80,124,125].
Figure 14. (a) Th/Yb versus Ta/Yb diagrams of the Bachagou andesites and Chaijialing andesites; (b) La/Yb versus Th/Yb diagrams of the Bachagou andesites and Chaijialing andesites; (c) Ta versus Yb diagrams of the Chaijialing dacites; and (b) Sr/Y versus Y diagrams of the Bachagou andesites, the Chaijialing andesites and dacites, (a) modified after Pearce and Peate [109]; (b) modified after Shervais [122]; (c) modified after Pearce et al. [123]; (d) modified after Defant and Drummond [111]. VAG-volcanic-arc granite; Syn-CLOG-syn-collision granite; WPG-within plate granite; ORG-ocean-ridge granite. Data are from the literature [26,28,29,35,38,41,64,65,68,70,71,72,78,79,80,124,125].
Minerals 13 00606 g014

5.4.2. Middle-Late Permian (270–252 Ma) Tectonic Evolution

The Chaijialing andesites are highly fractionated in rare earth elements, enriched in LILEs and LREEs, and depleted in HREEs and HFSEs, showing the geochemical characteristics of active continental margin volcanic rocks. In addition, the Permian mafic-intermediate rocks (including the Chaijialing andesites) plot in the field of continental arcs and island arcs in a La/Yb versus Th/Yb diagram (Figure 14b). The Middle-Late Permian felsic rocks plot mostly in the field of volcanic-arc granite with some plotting in the field of syn-collisional granite in a Ta versus Yb diagram (Figure 14c).
The SXCYS extends in a west–east direction. The Faku Dongxiaoling pluton (264 Ma), the Faku Hujiatun pluton (257 Ma), the Jilin shanhe pluton (252 Ma), and the Jilin Dahonglazi pluton (251 Ma) are all A-type granites [10,26,72]. The Middle-Late Permian intrusive rocks in the study area are dominated by granitic rocks [10], with outcropping contemporaneous mafic plutons such as the Kaiyuan Mengjiagou gabbro (266 Ma), Jilin Shuangfengshan olivine-gabbro (258 Ma), Tudingzhen bojite (252 Ma), Yanbian Qinggoushan gabbro (245 Ma), Yanbian Zhixing pluton (251 Ma), and the formation of a bimodal volcanic rock assemblage. A-type granite, bimodal volcanic rocks are associated with extensional environments [126,127,128]. As shown in Figure 9, the igneous rocks in the Faku-Yanji area become younger from south to north, suggesting the direction of movement of the magmatic arc towards the trench. Subduction rollback can result in the movement of the magmatic arc, which also induces extensional tectonics regime of the upper plate due to reduced coupling with the upper plate and upwelling of the asthenosphere [129,130]. In summary, the eastern section of the north margin of NCC appears to have experienced the subduction rollback of the eastern PAO Plate.

5.4.3. Late Permian–Middle Triassic (251–240 Ma) Tectonic Evolution

As mentioned above, one of the most frequently disputed issues is the closure time of the eastern PAO. Based on Devonian stable continental margin sedimentary formation in Northeastern China, Xu et al. [12,31] argue that the closure time of PAO is Middle-Late Devonian. Based on the presence of syn-collisional granites (Faku Baijiagou pluton (248 Ma), Jilin Dayushan pluton (248 Ma), Yanbian Liushugou pluton (245 Ma), Helong Yongxin pluton (238 Ma)) along the SXCYS, many researchers propose that the eastern Paleo-Asian Ocean closed in Early-Middle Triassic [26,35,72,80]. Based on molasse sedimentary formation (Central Jilin Dajianggang Formation), some researchers maintain that the final closure of the eastern PAO took place before the Late Triassic [131,132,133]. Some researchers suggest that the eastern PAO closed after the Middle-Triassic based on metamorphism (low greenschist to amphibolite facies) and 40Ar/39Ar plateau ages (229–220 Ma) of the metamorphic minerals [134,135,136]. There is also controversy about the closure style of the PAO, Some researchers suggest that the Paleo-Asian Ocean closed sequentially from west to east [5,33,34], while others argue that it closed simultaneously [36,37].
We discuss the closure time and style of the eastern paleo-Asian ocean from the perspective of crustal thickness, paleomagnetism, paleontology, and magmatism. (1) The observed crustal thickening (290–260 Ma) is attributed to the southward subduction of the Paleo-Asian oceanic plate (Figure 15b). The culmination of crustal thickening and the attainment of peak crustal thickness occurred during the final collisional setting. The study area is divided into two sections (123–125° E and 125–131° E) based on longitude (Figure 15b). The western section shows crustal thickening earlier than the eastern section, indicating that the PAO closed in a scissor-like style from west to east. (2) According to a paleomagnetic study of volcanic sedimentary strata in the Baoligomiao Formation, the middle-eastern section of the Paleo-Asian Ocean was 2700 km wide in a north-south direction during the Late Carboniferous-Early Permian period, and it gradually widened from west to east [137]. Paleomagnetic analysis of sandstones from the Linxi and Taohaiyinzi Formations indicates that the eastern section of the Paleo-Asian Ocean closed during the Late Permian–Early Triassic [138]. (3) The Solonker-Xar Moron-Changchun-Yanji suture zone is a critical sedimentary facies boundary between the Carboniferous system and Permian systems. The Angara flora was mainly distributed in the north of the suture zone, while the Cathaysia flora was distributed in the south of the suture zone, and the two floras were mixed after the Late Permian, indicating that the closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean had not yet occurred before the Middle Permian [139]. (4) Syncollisional granites with an age range of 248–238 Ma are widely distributed in the eastern part of the northern margin of the NCC. The age of these granites gradually decreases from west to east. In particular, the Faku Baijiagou pluton (248 Ma), Jilin Dayushan pluton (248 Ma), Yanbian Liushugou pluton (245 Ma), and Helong Yongxin pluton (238 Ma) are prime examples of such granites [26,35,72,79]. (5) As shown in Figure 14c, the Early Permian and Middle Permian–Late Permian felsic rocks are located in the volcanic arc granite field, whereas the Late Permian–Middle Triassic felsic rocks (including Chaijialing dacite samples QC04) are mainly situated in the volcanic arc and syn-collisional granite field. As the rocks become younger, their tectonic setting gradually changes from an active continental margin volcanic arc to a syn-collision setting. In addition, the Chaijialing dacites show unique geochemical features of adakite that form by partial melting of thickened lower crust, indicating that it formed in a syn-collision environment (Figure 14d).
In summary, from the perspectives discussed above, it can be concluded that the Eastern Palao-Asian Ocean closed in a scissor-like style from west to east during the Late Permian-Early Triassic. In addition, we suggest that the tectonic evolution of the Faku-Kaiyuan area can be divided into three stages: active continental margin setting (293–273 Ma), subduction rollback (270–252 Ma), and collisional setting (251–240 Ma) (Figure 16).

6. Conclusions

Zircon U-Pb dating results show that the studied andesites and dacites were formed between 287–244 Ma (Early Permian to Middle Triassic).
The Bachagou andesites formed by the partial melting of a mantle wedge metasomatized by subduction fluids in an active continental margin. The Chaijialing andesites were generated from a metasomatized mantle by slab-derived and sediment fluids in an extensional environment caused by subduction rollback. The Chaijialing dacites were produced by the partial melting of thickened lower crust in a syn-collisional environment.
The tectonic evolution of the Faku-Kaiyuan area can be divided into three stages: active continental margin setting (293–273 Ma), subduction rollback (270–252 Ma), and collisional setting (251–240 Ma).
The PAO closed in a scissor-like style from west to east during the Late Permian–Middle Triassic.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/min13050606/s1, Table S1: SHRIMP U-Pb zircon data for the Early Permian andesite in the eastern section of the northern margin of the NCC; Table S2: LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon data for the Permo-Triassic volcanic rocks in the eastern section of the northern margin of the NCC; Table S3: Major (wt%) and trace (ppm) elements of the Permo-Triassic volcanic rocks in the eastern section of the northern margin of the NCC; Table S4: In situ zircon Hf isotopic compositions for the Permo-Triassic volcanic rocks in the eastern section of the Northern margin of the NCC; Table S5: Geochronological data for Permo-Triassic igneous rocks in the Faku-Yanji Area. Figure S1: CL images of zircon from the Bachagou andesites. The white circles indicate the locations of the SHRIMP U–Pb analysis spots, while the dashed red circles indicate the spots of the in–situ Lu–Hf isotopic composition analysis.; Figure S2. CL images of zircon from the Chaijialing andesites. The white circles indicate the locations of the LA-ICP-MS U–Pb analysis spots. Figure S3. CL images of zircon from the Chaijialing dacites. The white circles indicate the locations of the LA-ICP-MS U–Pb analysis spots.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.X. and Y.S.; formal analysis, Y.S.; funding acquisition, Y.S. and Z.L.; investigation, J.X., Y.S. and Z.L; project administration, Y.S.; supervision, Y.S. and Z.L.; visualization, J.X., writing-original draft, J.X.; writing-review and editing, Y.S., Z.L. and L.X. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant 42272253, 41872203).

Data Availability Statement

All data generated or used in the study are contained in the submitted article.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the journal editor and the anonymous reviewers for their constructive reviews.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 2. (a) Tectonic sketch map of Asia. Modified after Liu et al. [4]. (b) Geological sketch map of the Faku area. Modified from Shi et al. [27]. (c) Geological sketch map of the Kaiyuan area. 1-Derbugan Fault; 2-Nenjiang-Balihan Fault; 3-Songliao Basin Central Fault; 4-Yitong-Yilan Fault; 5-Dunhua-Mishan Fault; 6-Yujinshan Fault; 7-Chifeng-Kaiyuan Fault.
Figure 2. (a) Tectonic sketch map of Asia. Modified after Liu et al. [4]. (b) Geological sketch map of the Faku area. Modified from Shi et al. [27]. (c) Geological sketch map of the Kaiyuan area. 1-Derbugan Fault; 2-Nenjiang-Balihan Fault; 3-Songliao Basin Central Fault; 4-Yitong-Yilan Fault; 5-Dunhua-Mishan Fault; 6-Yujinshan Fault; 7-Chifeng-Kaiyuan Fault.
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Figure 3. Representative outcrop photographs and photomicrographs of volcanic rocks in the study. (a,b) outcrop and photomicrographs of Bachagou andesite (Sample BTZ1). (c,d) outcrop and photomicrographs of Chaijialing andesite (Sample QC05-2). (e,f) outcrop and photomicrographs of Chaijialing dacite (Sample QC04). Pl = plagioclase; Or = Orthclase; Bt = Biotite.
Figure 3. Representative outcrop photographs and photomicrographs of volcanic rocks in the study. (a,b) outcrop and photomicrographs of Bachagou andesite (Sample BTZ1). (c,d) outcrop and photomicrographs of Chaijialing andesite (Sample QC05-2). (e,f) outcrop and photomicrographs of Chaijialing dacite (Sample QC04). Pl = plagioclase; Or = Orthclase; Bt = Biotite.
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Figure 4. (a,d,g) Cathodoluminescence (CL) images of the representative zircon crystals from the studied samples. (b,c,e,f,h,i) Each Figure shows a Zircon U-Pb concordia diagram for the studied samples, with weighted mean age and MSWD. White solid circles show the locations of analyzed spots.
Figure 4. (a,d,g) Cathodoluminescence (CL) images of the representative zircon crystals from the studied samples. (b,c,e,f,h,i) Each Figure shows a Zircon U-Pb concordia diagram for the studied samples, with weighted mean age and MSWD. White solid circles show the locations of analyzed spots.
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Figure 5. Nb/Y versus Zr/TiO2 (a), SiO2 versus total alkali (K2O + Na2O), SiO2 versus K2O, and A/CNK versus A/NK diagrams for the Early Permian–Middle Triassic volcanic rocks in the Faku-Kaiyuan area, (a) modified after Winchester and Floyd [55]; (b) modified after Bas et al. [56]; (c) modified after Peccerillo and Taylor [57]; (d) modified after Maniar and Piccoli [58].
Figure 5. Nb/Y versus Zr/TiO2 (a), SiO2 versus total alkali (K2O + Na2O), SiO2 versus K2O, and A/CNK versus A/NK diagrams for the Early Permian–Middle Triassic volcanic rocks in the Faku-Kaiyuan area, (a) modified after Winchester and Floyd [55]; (b) modified after Bas et al. [56]; (c) modified after Peccerillo and Taylor [57]; (d) modified after Maniar and Piccoli [58].
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Figure 7. εHf(t) values and zircon ages of the Early Permian -Middle Triassic volcanic rocks in the Faku-Kaiyuan area. Ranges for COAB YFTB are from Yang et al. [62]. CAOB: Central Asian Orogenic Belt; YFTB: Yanshan Fold and Thrust Belt.
Figure 7. εHf(t) values and zircon ages of the Early Permian -Middle Triassic volcanic rocks in the Faku-Kaiyuan area. Ranges for COAB YFTB are from Yang et al. [62]. CAOB: Central Asian Orogenic Belt; YFTB: Yanshan Fold and Thrust Belt.
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Figure 8. Age histogram of Permian–Triassic igneous rocks in the Faku-Yanji Area. Data are from the literature [10,15,25,26,27,28,35,36,38,39,40,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81].
Figure 8. Age histogram of Permian–Triassic igneous rocks in the Faku-Yanji Area. Data are from the literature [10,15,25,26,27,28,35,36,38,39,40,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81].
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Figure 9. Simplified tectonic units of the Faku-Yanji area showing the distribution of Permian–Triassic igneous rocks. Age data are referred from Table S5 and this study.
Figure 9. Simplified tectonic units of the Faku-Yanji area showing the distribution of Permian–Triassic igneous rocks. Age data are referred from Table S5 and this study.
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Figure 10. (a) (Hf/Sm)N versus (Ta/La)N; and (b) Th/Yb versus Ba/La diagrams of the Bachagou andesites. Modified after Ji et al. [91].
Figure 10. (a) (Hf/Sm)N versus (Ta/La)N; and (b) Th/Yb versus Ba/La diagrams of the Bachagou andesites. Modified after Ji et al. [91].
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Figure 11. Diagrams of (a) SiO2 versus FeOtot/MgO and (b) Sr/Y versus Y for the Chaijialing andesite. Modified after Kamei et al. [95].
Figure 11. Diagrams of (a) SiO2 versus FeOtot/MgO and (b) Sr/Y versus Y for the Chaijialing andesite. Modified after Kamei et al. [95].
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Figure 12. (a) (Hf/Sm)N versus (Ta/La)N and (b)Ba/Nb versus Ba/La diagrams of the Chaijialing andesites. (a) modified after La Flèche et al. [109]; (b) modified after Zhao et al. [110].
Figure 12. (a) (Hf/Sm)N versus (Ta/La)N and (b)Ba/Nb versus Ba/La diagrams of the Chaijialing andesites. (a) modified after La Flèche et al. [109]; (b) modified after Zhao et al. [110].
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Figure 13. (a)Th versus Rb/Sr; (b) MgO versus SiO2 of the Chaijialing dacite. Modified after Huo et al. [120].
Figure 13. (a)Th versus Rb/Sr; (b) MgO versus SiO2 of the Chaijialing dacite. Modified after Huo et al. [120].
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Figure 15. (a) DSr/Y versus D(La/Yb)N; and (b) Crustal thickness versus U-Pb age of the Permian–Triassic igneous rocks in the eastern segment of the northern margin of the NCC. Data are from the literature [26,28,29,35,65,68,70,72,75,77,78,79,80,124,125]. DSr/Y represents the crustal thickness calculated from Sr/Y ratios; D(La/Yb)N represents the crustal thickness calculated from (La/Yb)N ratios.
Figure 15. (a) DSr/Y versus D(La/Yb)N; and (b) Crustal thickness versus U-Pb age of the Permian–Triassic igneous rocks in the eastern segment of the northern margin of the NCC. Data are from the literature [26,28,29,35,65,68,70,72,75,77,78,79,80,124,125]. DSr/Y represents the crustal thickness calculated from Sr/Y ratios; D(La/Yb)N represents the crustal thickness calculated from (La/Yb)N ratios.
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Figure 16. Simplified model showing the Early Permian-Middle Triassic tectonic evolution of the northern margin of the NCC. Modified after Liu et al. [5].
Figure 16. Simplified model showing the Early Permian-Middle Triassic tectonic evolution of the northern margin of the NCC. Modified after Liu et al. [5].
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Xue, J.; Shi, Y.; Liu, Z.; Xue, L. Closure of the Eastern Paleo-Asian Ocean: Evidence from Permian–Triassic Volcanic Rocks in the Northern Margin of the North China Craton. Minerals 2023, 13, 606. https://doi.org/10.3390/min13050606

AMA Style

Xue J, Shi Y, Liu Z, Xue L. Closure of the Eastern Paleo-Asian Ocean: Evidence from Permian–Triassic Volcanic Rocks in the Northern Margin of the North China Craton. Minerals. 2023; 13(5):606. https://doi.org/10.3390/min13050606

Chicago/Turabian Style

Xue, Jixiang, Yi Shi, Zhenghong Liu, and Linfu Xue. 2023. "Closure of the Eastern Paleo-Asian Ocean: Evidence from Permian–Triassic Volcanic Rocks in the Northern Margin of the North China Craton" Minerals 13, no. 5: 606. https://doi.org/10.3390/min13050606

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