Migration, Remittances, and Forest Cover Change in Rural Guatemala and Chiapas, Mexico
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. A Migration–Forest Framework
3. Study Areas, Data, and Methods
3.1. Characteristics of the Eight Study Communities
3.2. Surveys and Data Sources
3.3. Empirical Strategy and Methods
4. Results
4.1. Household Characteristics
4.2. Livelihood Strategies and Economic Activities
4.3. Landholdings and Input Use
4.4. Forest Cover Change: Guatemala–Chiapas Contrasts
5. Discussion and Synthesis
5.1. Stage in Migration
5.2. Landholdings and Land Tenure
5.3. Market Access and Income-Generating Opportunities
5.4. Government Policies
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Obokata, R.; Veronis, L.; McLeman, R. Empirical research on international environmental migration: A systematic review. Popul. Environ. 2014, 36, 111–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Piguet, E.; Kaenzig, R.; Guélat, J. The uneven geography of research on “environmental migration”. Popul. Environ. 2018, 39, 357–383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Berlemann, M.; Steinhardt, M.F. Climate change, natural disasters, and migration—A survey of the empirical evidence. CESifo Econ. Stud. 2017, 63, 353–385. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hunter, L.M.; Nawrotzki, R. Migration and the Environment. In International Handbook of Migration and Population Distribution; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2016; pp. 465–484. [Google Scholar]
- Robson, J.P.; Klooster, D.J. Migration and a New Landscape of Forest Use and Conservation. Environ. Conserv. 2019, 46, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Radel, C.; Jokisch, B.D.; Schmook, B.; Carte, L.; Aguilar-Støen, M.; Hermans, K.; Zimmerer, K.; Aldrich, S. Migration as a feature of land system transitions. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 2019, 38, 103–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jokisch, B.D.; Radel, C.; Carte, L.; Schmook, B. Migration matters: How migration is critical to contemporary human–environment geography. Geogr. Compass 2019, 13, e12460. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lambin, E.F.; Meyfroidt, P. Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2011, 108, 3465–3472. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- De Sherbinin, A.; VanWey, L.K.; McSweeney, K.; Aggarwal, R.; Barbieri, A.; Henry, S.; Hunter, L.M.; Twine, W.; Walker, R. Rural household demographics, livelihoods and the environment. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2008, 18, 38–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- IPCC. Climate change: The physical science basis. Working Group I contribution to the Fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). In Climate Change 2013; Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.-K., Tignor, M., Allen, S.K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V., Midgley, P.M., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK; New York, NY, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- BANGUAT. Ingreso de Divisas por Remesas Familiares, Años 2008–2014; Banco de Guatemala: Guatemala City, Guatemala, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- BANMEX. Informe Anual; Banco de Mexico: Mexico City, Mexico, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Hecht, S. The new rurality: Globalization, peasants and the paradoxes of landscapes. Land Use Policy 2010, 27, 161–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taylor, M.J.; Moran-Taylor, M.J.; Rodman Ruiz, D. Land, ethnic, and gender change: Transnational migration and its effects on Guatemalan lives and landscapes. Geoforum 2006, 37, 41–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aguilar-Støen, M. ‘Con nuestro propio esfuerzo’: Understanding the Relationships between International Migration and the Environment in Guatemala. Eur. Rev. Lat. Am. Caribb. Stud. 2012, 93, 25–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gray, C.L.; Bilsborrow, R.E. Consequences of out-migration for land use in rural Ecuador. Land Use Policy 2014, 36, 182–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Davis, J.; Lopez-Carr, D. Migration, remittances and smallholder decision-making: Implications for land use and livelihood change in Central America. Land Use Policy 2014, 36, 319–329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Wiersum, K.F.; Gonzalez, I.C.G. “Intermediate” Forest Types as Man-Nature Systems: Characteristics and Future Potential; Forest management group, Wageningen University: Wageningen, The Netherlands, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Cole, R.; Wong, G.; Brockhaus, M. Reworking the Land: A Review of Literature on the Role of Migration and Remittances in the Rural Livelihoods of Southeast Asia; Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR): Bogor, Indonesia, 2015; 29p. [Google Scholar]
- Rigg, J. Land, farming, livelihoods, and poverty: Rethinking the links in the Rural South. World Dev. 2006, 34, 180–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jokisch, B.D. Migration and Agricultural Change: The Case of Smallholder Agriculture in Highland Ecuador. Hum. Ecol. 2002, 30, 523–550. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aguilar-Støen, M.; Angelsen, A.; Moe, S.R. Back to the forest: Exploring Forest Transitions in Candelaria Loxicha, Mexico. Lat. Am. Res. Rev. 2011, 46, 194–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schmook, B.; Radel, C. International Labor Migration from a Tropical Development Frontier: Globalizing Households and an Incipient Forest Transition. Hum. Ecol. 2008, 36, 891–908. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mather, A.S. The Forest Transition. Area 1992, 24, 367–379. [Google Scholar]
- Southworth, J.; Nagendra, H.; Cassidy, L. Forest transition pathways in Asia–studies from Nepal, India, Thailand, and Cambodia. J. Land Use Sci. 2012, 7, 51–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rudel, T.K.; Coomes, O.T.; Moran, E.; Achard, F.; Angelsen, A.; Xu, J.C.; Lambin, E. Forest transitions: Towards a global understanding of land use change. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2005, 15, 23–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Angelsen, A.; Rudel, T.K. Designing and Implementing Effective REDD + Policies: A Forest Transition Approach. Rev. Environ. Econ. Policy 2013, 7, 91–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Preston, D.A. Too busy to farm: Under-utilisation of farm land in central Java. J. Dev. Stud. 1989, 26, 43–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ellis, F. Rural Livelihoods and Diversity in Developing Countries; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- McCusker, B. Land Use and Cover Change as an Indicator of Transformation on Recently Redistributed Farms in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Hum. Ecol. 2004, 32, 49–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bebbington, A. Globalized Andes? Livelihoods, landscapes and development. Cult. Geogr. 2001, 8, 414–436. Available online: http://cgj.sagepub.com/content/8/4/.
- Hecht, S.B.; Kandel, S.; Gomes, I.; Cuellar, N.; Rosa, H. Globalization, forest resurgence, and environmental politics in El Salvador. World Dev. 2006, 34, 308–323. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Babigumira, R.; Angelsen, A.; Buis, M.; Bauch, S.; Sunderland, T.; Wunder, S. Forest Clearing in Rural Livelihoods: Household-Level Global-Comparative Evidence. World Dev. 2014, 64 (Suppl. 1), S67–S79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Damon, A.L. Agricultural land use and asset accumulation in migrant households: The case of El Salvador. J. Dev. Stud. 2010, 46, 162–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Haas, H. Migration, remittances and regional development in Southern Morocco. Geoforum 2006, 37, 565–580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Haas, H. Migration and development: A theoretical perspective. Int. Migr. Rev. 2010, 44, 227–264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Stark, O.; Bloom, D.E. The New Economics of Labor Migration. Am. Econ. Rev. 1985, 75, 173–178. [Google Scholar]
- Janvry, A.D.; Fafchamps, M.; Sadoulet, E. Peasant household behavior with missing markets: Some paradoxes explained. Econ. J. 1991, 101, 1400–1417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taylor, J.E.; López-Feldman, A. Does migration make rural households more productive? Evidence from Mexico. J. Dev. Stud. 2010, 46, 68–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Angelsen, A.; Kaimowitz, D. (Eds.) Agricultural Technologies and Tropical Deforestation; CAB International: Wallingford, UK, 2001. [Google Scholar]
- Ewers, R.M.; Scharlemann, J.P.W.; Balmford, A.; Green, R.E. Do increases in agricultural yield spare land for nature? Glob. Chang. Biol. 2009, 15, 1716–1726. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Radel, C.; Schmook, B.; Carte, L.; Mardero, S. Toward a political ecology of migration: Land, labor migration, and climate change in northwestern Nicaragua. World Dev. 2018, 108, 263–273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Massey, D.S.; Alarcón, R.; Durand, J.; González, H. Return to Aztlan. The Social Process of International Migration from Western Mexico; University of California Press: Berkeley, CA, USA, 1987. [Google Scholar]
- Levitt, P.; Lamba-Nieves, D. Social Remittances Revisited. J. Ethn. Migr. Stud. 2011, 37, 1–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Aguilar-Støen, M.; Taylor, M.; Castellanos, E. Agriculture, Land Tenure and International Migration in Rural Guatemala. J. Agrar. Chang. 2016, 16, 123–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Davis, J.; Eakin, H. Chiapas’ delayed entry into the international labour market: A story of peasant isolation, exploitation, and coercion. Migr. Dev. 2013, 2, 132–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gauster, S.; Isakson, S.R. Eliminating market distortions, perpetuating rural inequality: An evaluation of market-assisted land reform in Guatemala. Third World Q. 2007, 28, 1519–1536. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- PNUD. Informe Nacional de Desarrollo Humano 2009–2010; PNUD: Guatemala City, Guatemala, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Eakin, H.; Tucker, C.; Castellanos, E. Responding to the coffee crisis: A pilot study of farmers’ adaptations in Mexico, Guatemala and Honduras. Geogr. J. 2006, 172, 156–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De la Torre, R.; Moreno, H. Advances in sub-National Measurement of the Human Development Index: The Case of Mexico; UNDP: Mexico City, Mexico, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Regalado, O.; Villagrán, X.; Pérez, G.; Castellanos, E.; Martínez, G.; Incer, D.; Ramos, V.H.; Molina, O.; Beltetón, C.; Gómez, J.M. Mapa de Cobertura Forestal de Guatemala 2010 y Dinámica de la Cobertura Forestal 2006–2010; National Forestry Institute (INAB), National Council for Protected Areas (CONAP), Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, Universidad Rafael Landívar: Guatemala City, Guatemala, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Liverman, D.M.; Cuesta, R.M.R. Human interactions with the Earth system: People and pixels revisited. Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 2008, 33, 1458–1471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- FAO. The Future of Food and Agriculture. Trends and Challenges; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome, Italy, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Stevenson, J.R.; Villoria, N.; Byerlee, D.; Kelley, T.; Maredia, M. Green Revolution research saved an estimated 18 to 27 million hectares from being brought into agricultural production. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2013, 110, 8363–8368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Wooldridge, J.M. Econometric Analysis of Cross Section and Panel Data; MIT Press: Cambridge, USA, 2010; p. xxvii. [Google Scholar]
- Klein, R.; Vella, F. Estimating a class of triangular simultaneous equations models without exclusion restrictions. J. Econom. 2010, 154, 154–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rabe-Hesketh, S.; Everitt, B.S. Handbook of Statistical Analyses Using Stata; Chapman and Hall/CRC: Boca Raton, FL, USA; London, UK; New York, NY, USA, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Walker, R.; Perz, S.; Caldas, M.; Silva, L.G.T. Land use and land cover change in forest frontiers: The role of household life cycles. Int. Reg. Sci. Rev. 2002, 25, 169–199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Radel, C. Becoming farmers: Opening spaces for women’s resource control in Calakmul, Mexico. Lat. Am. Res. Rev. 2011, 46, 29–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Radel, C.; Schmook, B. Male transnational migration and its linkages to land-use change in a southern Campeche ejido. J. Lat. Am. Geogr. 2008, 7, 59–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- INE. IV Censo Agropecuario de Guatemala; INE: Guatemala City, Guatemala, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Taylor, M.J.; Aguilar-Støen, M.; Castellanos, E.; Moran-Taylor, M.J.; Gerkin, K. International migration, land use change and the environment in Ixcán, Guatemala. Land Use Policy 2016, 54, 290–301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Angelsen, A. Agricultural Expansion and Deforestation: Modelling the Impact of Population, Market Forces and Property Rights. J. Dev. Econ. 1999, 58, 185–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ruttan, V.W.; Hayami, Y. Toward a Theory of Induced Institutional Innovation. J. Dev. Stud. 1984, 20, 203–223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Deininger, K.; Minten, B. Determinants of deforestation and the economics of protection: An application to Mexico. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 2002, 84, 943–960. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bonilla-Moheno, M.; Redo, D.J.; Aide, T.M.; Clark, M.L.; Grau, H.R. Vegetation change and land tenure in Mexico: A country-wide analysis. Land Use Policy 2013, 30, 355–364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alix-Garcia, J.; De Janvry, A.; Sadoulet, E. A tale of two communities: Explaining deforestation in Mexico. World Dev. 2005, 33, 219–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hurtado Paz y Paz, L. Dinámicas Agrarias y Reproducción Campesina en la Globalizacion: El Caso de Alta Verapaz. 1970–2007; F&G Editores: Guatemala City, Guatemala, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Díaz, G. Opciones de Política Para las Inversiones Agrícolas y la Gobernanza de los Mercados. En Apoyo a la Agricultura a Pequeña Escala en Guatemala; Oxfam: Guatemala City, Guatemala, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Palencia-Prado, M. Elites y Lógicas de Acumulación en la Modernización Económica Guatemalteca; Instituto de Investigaciones y Gerencia Política, Universidad Rafael Landívar: Guatemala City, Guatemala, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Aguilar-Støen, M. Social forestry movements and science-policy networks: The politics of the forestry incentives program in Guatemala. Geoforum 2018, 90, 20–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Aguilar-Støen, M. Beyond Transnational Corporations, Food and Biofuels: The Role of Extractivism and Agribusiness in Land Grabbing in Central America. Forum Dev. Stud. 2016, 43, 1–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krznaric, R. The limits on Pro-poor agricultural trade in Guatemala: Land, labour and political power. J. Hum. Dev. 2006, 7, 111–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fischer, E.F.; Benson, P. Broccoli and Desire. Global Connections and Maya Struggles in Postwar Guatemala; Stanford University Press: Stanford, CA, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Fischer, E.F.; Victor, B. High-End Coffee and Smallholding Growers in Guatemala. Lat. Am. Res. Rev. 2014, 49, 155–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Der Haar, G. Land reform, the state, and the Zapatista uprising in Chiapas. J. Peasant Stud. 2005, 32, 484–507. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cornelius, W.A.; Craig, A.L.; Fox, J. Transforming State-Society Relations in Mexico: The National Solidarity Strategy; Center for US-Mexican Studies, University of California: San Diego La Jolla, CA, USA, 1994. [Google Scholar]
- Solís, D.V. Rural Chiapas ten years after the armed uprising of 1994: An economic overview. J. Peasant Stud. 2005, 32, 461–483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Guatemala | Chiapas (Mexico) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Santa Teresa | La Estancia | San Lucas | El Javillal | El Aguila | La Competencia | Miguel Avila Camacho | 24 de Febrero | |
Start of major, international migration | 1960s | 1970s | 1980s | 1990s | 1970s | 1990s | 1990s | 1990s |
Population (rincet. households) | 300 | 600 | 200 | 158 | 287 | 245 | 440 | 127 |
Poverty (% living in poverty/HDI score) | 63/0.65 | 43/0.70 | 88/0.58 | 57/0.71 | 70/0.71 | 93/0.56 | 77/0.73 | 85/0.67 |
Cash crops | Coffee, cattle, sugarcane | Vegetables | Oil palm, cattle, cardamom, maize | Maize (very little) | Coffee | Cattle, coffee | Maize | Maize |
Subsistence crops (own consumption) | Maize, beans | Maize, beans | Maize, beans | Maize, beans | Maize, beans, vegetables | Maize, beans, vegetables | Maize, beans | Maize, beans |
Land tenure | Private | Private (agric.) and common (forest) | Private | Common | Common | Common | Common | Common |
Forest vegetation | Tropical moist forest | Tropical lower montane moist forest | Tropical wet forest | Tropical moist forest and subtropical dry forest | Cloud (montane) forest | Tropical wet forest | Mangroves | Tropical deciduous forest |
Total land area (ha) | 11,942 | 387 | 4708 | 2206 | 986 | 3,113 | 3014 | 2,021 |
Forest area, 2010 (ha) | 2479 | 141 | 2448 | 188 | 313 | 698 | 975 | 1,088 |
Forest area share, 2010 (%) | 20.8 | 36.4 | 52.0 | 8.5 | 31.8 | 22.4 | 32.3 | 53.8 |
Annual forest cover change, 1990–2000 (%) | 0.15 | 0.05 | −1.82 | 0.91 | −0.74 | 2.62 | −1.15 | 1.82 |
Annual forest cover change, 2000–2010 (%) | −1.30 | −0.93 | −0.47 | −0.22 | 0.10 | 0.41 | 0.28 | 1.89 |
Guatemala | Chiapas (Mexico) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Santa Teresa | La Estancia | San Lucas | El Javillal | El Aguila | La Competencia | Manuel Avila Camacho | 24 de Febrero | |
Number of households (sample) | 115 | 175 | 61 | 50 | 102 | 102 | 102 | 38 |
Migration status (%): | ||||||||
Households with migrants | 57 | 20 | 43 | 42 | 54 | 48 | 35 | 47 |
-migrants living abroad | 24 | 13 | 13 | 34 | 19 | 21 | 17 | 21 |
-return migrants (returnees) | 20 | 6 | 15 | 6 | 30 | 25 | 14 | 24 |
-migrants living abroad and returnees | 12 | 2 | 15 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 3 |
Household (hh) and farm characteristics: | ||||||||
Age of hh head (years, mean) | 50 | 42 | 48 | 51 | 51 | 47 | 48 | 45 |
Male-headed hh (%) | 84 | 89 | 93 | 66 | 95 | 91 | 94 | 95 |
hh with primary education (%) | 72 | 68 | 61 | 56 | 52 | 58 | 48 | 40 |
hh with post-primary education (%) | 14 | 27 | 8 | 24 | 36 | 21 | 32 | 29 |
hh size (persons, mean) | 5.1 | 5.2 | 6.1 | 5.5 | 5.1 | 4.8 | 4.4 | 4.0 |
Farm size (ha, mean) | 1.9 | 0.2 | 6.5 | 1.7 | 1.2 | 3.0 | 0.6 | 5.5 |
Major income sources1 (%): | ||||||||
Farming | 23 | 9 | 53 | 44 | 60 | 70 | 5 | 68 |
Agricultural wage | 31 | 10 | 33 | 34 | 13 | 4 | 1 | 24 |
Non-agric. Activities | 32 | 47 | 13 | 6 | 30 | 29 | 96 | 16 |
Craft making | 0 | 27 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Remittances2 | 13 | 7 | 10 | 20 | 5 | 9 | 3 | 0 |
Guatemala | Chiapas | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Non- migrants | Migrants abroad | Returnees | Non- migrants | Migrants abroad | Returnees | |
Number of households | 254 | 102 | 45 | 186 | 78 | 80 |
Household (hh) characteristics: | ||||||
Age of hh head (years, mean) | 44a | 52b | 45a | 48a | 52b | 47a |
Male-headed hh (%) | 88a | 76b | 93a | 94a | 91a | 94a |
hh with primary education (%) | 66a | 74a | 53b | 51a | 46a | 58a |
hh with post-primary education (%) | 19a | 10b | 29a | 30a | 26a | 32a |
hh size (persons, mean) | 5.5a | 4.7b | 5.6a | 4.5a | 4.9a | 4.9a |
Wealth indicators: | ||||||
Physical asset index | −0.23a | 0.37b | 0.48b | −0.22a | 0.21b | 0.29b |
Social capital index | −0.20a | 0.32b | 0.40b | 0.12a | −0.06ab | −0.23b |
Farm characteristics: | ||||||
Farm size (ha, mean) | 1.1a | 3.0b | 3.2b | 1.9a | 2.5a | 1.9a |
Plots (number, mean) | 1.1a | 1.6b | 1.4b | 1.0a | 1.3a | 1.1a |
Use of chemical inputs1 (%) | 72a | 76a | 91b | 56a | 65a | 51a |
Use of organic manure1 (%) | 20a | 13a | 12a | 6a | 13a | 13a |
Major income sources2 (%): | ||||||
Farming | 21a | 26ab | 33b | 44a | 45a | 59b |
Agricultural wage | 26a | 15b | 22ab | 6a | 8ab | 13b |
Non-agric. activities | 36a | 22b | 38a | 54a | 47a | 34b |
Craft making | 17a | 4b | 4b | 0a | 0a | 0a |
Remittances3 | 2a | 36b | 2a | 1a | 21b | 0a |
Guatemala | Chiapas | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | Farm size (OLS) | No. of plots (OLS) | Chemical inputs1 (Probit) | Farm size (OLS) | No. of plots (OLS) | Chemical inputs1 (Probit) |
Migration status: | ||||||
Household with migrant abroad2 | 0.027 | 0.488*** | 0.131 | 0.090 | 0.173 | 0.202 |
(0.086) | (0.155) | (0.179) | (0.098) | (0.156) | (0.219) | |
Household with return migrant2 | 0.099 | 0.170 | 0.376* | −0.013 | -0.075 | −0.051 |
(0.132) | (0.179) | (0.229) | (0.099) | (0.157) | (0.212) | |
Household (hh) characteristics: | ||||||
Age of hh head | 0.004 | 0.036 | 0.041 | 0.050*** | 0.077*** | −0.002 |
(0.015) | (0.024) | (0.030) | (0.017) | (0.027) | (0.039) | |
Age of hh head squared*10−2 | 0.004 | −0.029 | −0.029 | −0.037** | -0.063** | 0.014 |
(0.017) | (0.024) | (0.031) | (0.016) | (0.026) | (0.037) | |
Male-headed hh (1/0) | 0.199*** | 0.406*** | 0.403** | 0.500*** | 0.288 | 0.705* |
(0.073) | (0.127) | (0.192) | (0.161) | (0.255) | (0.383) | |
Primary education3 | 0.016 | -0.234 | −0.012 | 0.154 | 0.085 | −0.215 |
(0.116) | (0.240) | (0.216) | (0.115) | (0.183) | (0.248) | |
Post-primary education3 | −0.016 | -0.149 | 0.066 | 0.198 | 0.132 | −0.201 |
(0.162) | (0.356) | (0.292) | (0.143) | (0.227) | (0.314) | |
hh size | −0.007 | 0.042 | 0.006 | 0.006 | 0.009 | −0.028 |
(0.014) | (0.026) | (0.031) | (0.020) | (0.031) | (0.046) | |
Wealth indicators: | ||||||
Physical asset index | 0.248*** | 0.280*** | 0.224** | −0.074* | −0.082 | 0.028 |
(0.047) | (0.077) | (0.094) | (0.043) | (0.069) | (0.094) | |
Social capital index | 0.048 | 0.109* | 0.018 | −0.032 | 0.004 | 0.078 |
(0.030) | (0.061) | (0.078) | (0.048) | (0.076) | (0.123) | |
Community dummies: | ||||||
La Estancia [El Aguila]4 | −0.198*** | 0.613*** | 0.453** | −0.529*** | −0.840*** | −1.572*** |
(0.067) | (0.157) | (0.178) | (0.105) | (0.167) | (0.231) | |
El Javillal [24 de Febrero]4 | 0.598*** | 0.833*** | 0.987*** | 0.228* | −0.532** | −0.011 |
(0.098) | (0.180) | (0.259) | (0.135) | (0.214) | (0.258) | |
San Lucas [Manuel Avila Camacho]4 | 1.004*** | 0.853*** | 0.185 | −0.869*** | −1.724*** | −2.166*** |
(0.150) | (0.156) | (0.230) | (0.123) | (0.195) | (0.306) | |
Constant | −0.131 | −0.780 | −1.814** | −1.024** | −0.681 | −0.195 |
(0.306) | (0.492) | (0.728) | (0.487) | (0.773) | (1.127) | |
F (Chi square) value | 13.187*** | 7.405*** | 39.431 | 11.330*** | 11.265*** | 125.773*** |
Number of observations | 401 | 401 | 401 | 327 | 327 | 327 |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Angelsen, A.; Aguilar-Støen, M.; Ainembabazi, J.H.; Castellanos, E.; Taylor, M. Migration, Remittances, and Forest Cover Change in Rural Guatemala and Chiapas, Mexico. Land 2020, 9, 88. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9030088
Angelsen A, Aguilar-Støen M, Ainembabazi JH, Castellanos E, Taylor M. Migration, Remittances, and Forest Cover Change in Rural Guatemala and Chiapas, Mexico. Land. 2020; 9(3):88. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9030088
Chicago/Turabian StyleAngelsen, Arild, Mariel Aguilar-Støen, John Herbert Ainembabazi, Edwin Castellanos, and Matthew Taylor. 2020. "Migration, Remittances, and Forest Cover Change in Rural Guatemala and Chiapas, Mexico" Land 9, no. 3: 88. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9030088
APA StyleAngelsen, A., Aguilar-Støen, M., Ainembabazi, J. H., Castellanos, E., & Taylor, M. (2020). Migration, Remittances, and Forest Cover Change in Rural Guatemala and Chiapas, Mexico. Land, 9(3), 88. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9030088