Landscape Fire, Biodiversity Decline and a Rapidly Changing Milieu: A Microcosm of Global Issues in an Australian Biodiversity Hotspot
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- (i)
- people are the dominant influence on fires and biodiversity, i.e., in the city of Adelaide and its suburbs on the coastal plain,
- (ii)
- agriculture is prominent, in grasslands and grassy woodlands, and tree-species regeneration is a conservation issue;
- (iii)
- the hilly topography has major effects on bushfire behaviour and can have serious consequences for social and economic assets, including human fatalities;
- (iv)
- swamp-vegetation is rare and “critically endangered” [24], but little conserved, and fires there can be in peat, a fuel of considerable significance in tropical, as well as temperate zones; and,
- (v)
- threatened species, such as orchids and bandicoots, particularly in shrub and shrub woodland communities face inappropriate fire regimes and other threats.
2. The Study Area
Group | Total Species | Number Extinct | Number Threatened | Number Threatened by Fire Management Activities (Above Threat-Level “Low”) | Number Threatened by Inappropriate Fire Regimes (Above Threat-Level “Low”) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Flora | 1500 | 0 | 130 | 8 | 43 | ||||||
Fauna | 450 | 29 | 64 (plus 9 fish) | 4 | 25 (plus 5 fish) | ||||||
(Total: 194) | (Total: 12) | (Total: 68) | |||||||||
Mammals | 9 | 2 | |||||||||
Reptiles | 3 | 11 | |||||||||
Birds | 17 | 50 | |||||||||
Amphibians | - | 1 | |||||||||
(Total: 29) | (Total: 64) |
3. Populous Adelaide, Fires and Biodiversity
“…with man’s progress (from settlement in 1836 to 1850), vast numbers of quail which used to frequent these parts have disappeared”.([27], p. 16)
4. Grassy Woodlands and Grasslands
“The grass was very high. We had been for the last 3 miles going through what looked like high corn, but was really kangaroo grass, now seldom seen, and when the fire was lit to show us the way to the camp the grass took fire, burning miles of the country, fortunately to the north. Even now I can remember what a glorious sight it was.”(16 February 1839) [50]
4.1. Effects of Fire Regimes
4.2. Livestock Grazing Regimes and Revegetation
5. Forest Fires, Woody Weeds and Hills’ Assets
“As there was an abundance of stringybark, broom [woody weed] and blackberry (woody weed), the roar of the fire was terrifying”.([77], p. 6)
“The fire roared through the funnel formed by gullies, shooting out one end to incinerate forests, property, houses, stock and fences.”[78]
6. Critically Endangered Swamp Vegetation: Land Use, Peat Fires and Biodiversity
“…a week later, underground fires fed by 120 hectares of peat a metre deep, were still smouldering, sending up smoke visible for thirty kilometres”.(in South-East South Australia) [114]
- their smoke and ash is a health issue especially, perhaps, if it contains silica, a known carcinogen [130];
- their smoke persists for extensive periods and causes local nuisance effects on road visibility.
- they may cause the felling of stands of mature trees, as occurred in western Victoria in 2012 due to substrate combustion [131];
- they may cause dramatic changes in plant-species assemblages, as in western Victoria, where the plant community became a “eucalypt monoculture with practically no understorey” [132];
- they may cause changed hydrological conditions, such as in an area that burned for three months, “the ground sank, the creek bank collapsed, and large areas of burnt peat were washed away” [132]; and,
- depletion of peat deposits represents a loss of “geohistorical and biotic information of the evolution of the wetlands” [130].
- the predicted warming and drying of the climate in South Australia [60];
- the increasing human population, which is likely to lead to an increase in ground-water extraction, due to the higher demand for drinking water and/or irrigating;
- the growth of plantations, such as those with eucalypts or pines [136]; and,
- an increasing intensity of land use, including the draining of wetlands.
7. Species Conservation and Fires: Orchids and Bandicoots
“The major threats to the Southern Brown Bandicoot (eastern) [include] inappropriate fire regimes and extensive wildfires …”.[142]
- the killing of the population by high intensity fire;
- the lack of unburnt habitat in the immediate area in which a remnant population could have persisted and recolonised the area [155].
8. Discussion
“The settled areas of South Australia are within a natural environment which is bushfire-prone. This is a basic truth around which all else must revolve.”.[168]
“No Species Loss” policy: “… the aim is to lose no more species in South Australia …”.[169]
“Nature today is more about cities and farms than wilderness.”.([170], p. 47)
- many species have become extinct at local, state and national levels;
- many species are formally listed as threatened, endangered or vulnerable at state or national levels; and, similarly,
- a number of vegetation communities and their dependent fauna are under threat.
- effective and demonstrable connectivity through bio-links between all public reserves and all private remnant sites;
- strategic habitat restoration;
- enhanced conservation management across tenures;
- promotion of the “big picture” concepts, like all-tenure, whole-of-landscape [23] and whole-of-community approaches; and,
- fire regime management in all conservation management planning and actions’.
- anticipate the nature of more densely populated landscapes under climate change, land use change, soil change (e.g., peaty substrates) and new aggregations of indigenous and introduced species forming an increased range of “novel ecosystems” [178], a “new nature” [170], managed with a range of synthetic fire regimes [82];
- address species-based conservation in private urban, peri-urban and rural areas generally, with a view toward the continuity of conservation achievement through time, despite changes of land ownership;
- determine the responses of indigenous species to fire regimes [143], including responses to variation in fire interval and intensities and times of year (and peat fires where relevant);
- understand and respond to lags in tree-population change (and fire regimes) and its consequences for the habitat—the “extinction debt” [59] and barriers to species migration that could cause species’ population decline;
- measure and record the status of biodiversity across landscapes from cities and towns to far-flung areas and respond adaptively and comprehensively; and,
- record the occurrence of fires across the entire landscape more comprehensively, including the locations of fires in crop residues and the passage of unplanned fires across private land, along with the locations of all ignition points.
9. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix
Year, Month | Location | Extent | Notes | Sources | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1837, February | “the hills” (Mt Lofty area) | “... a mass of flame” | [37] (p. 268) | ||||||||||||||||
1873, January | Salisbury, Echunga | small | [179] | ||||||||||||||||
1878, January | Echunga, Hahndorf [180] Uraidla, Carey’s Gully, Greenhill Rd, Crafers [181] | Losses of “miles of fencing, tons of timber and bark, besides feed”. “Hahndorf has not been in such peril from fire for 20 or 30 years” [180] | [180] and [181] (p. 45) | ||||||||||||||||
1882, February | Adelaide Hills including Marble Hill | [182] | |||||||||||||||||
1884, March | Adelaide Hills | Fifty acres of scrub, 400 acres of grass | Near Marble Hill | [183] | |||||||||||||||
1886, March | Lenswood | 60 square miles | “catastrophic fire” | [184] | |||||||||||||||
1897, February | Near Marble Hill | “… as the first hot months of the year go by pillars of smoke rising here and there from the Mt Lofty Range become normal”. | [90] | ||||||||||||||||
1900, February | Adelaide Hills | “… two big bush fires raged in the ranges near the hills residence of the Governor” | [185] | ||||||||||||||||
1901, February | Marble Hill | “Lord and Lady Tennyson spent the summer of 1901 at Marble Hill amid great heat, drought and bushfires” [186]. Lady Tennyson wrote that these [bushfires] were a “most wonderful sight, all the hills bursting into great volumes of smoke and great clouds of smoke rolling along the gullies.” Fire entered their “own gully garden” on February 7 [187]. | [186] and [187] (p. 139) | ||||||||||||||||
1902, March | Echunga-Meadows | 600 acres [188] | [189] | ||||||||||||||||
1905, February | Adelaide Hills: from Marble Hill to Belair | “Hollow trees were converted into furnaces”. “No words can portray the magnificence of the spectacle … at midnight”. “A large area to the north of the park [Belair] has been swept by previous fires, thus minimising the risks incurred three years ago, when 600 acres of the park ... were burnt.” | [188] | ||||||||||||||||
1906, January | Echunga | “The fire has extended north and south five miles in each direction” | “About 3am on Monday, strong winds sprang up, and made the fire more vigorous than ever” | [102] | |||||||||||||||
1907, March | Norton’s Summit | “As a rule a bush fire if confined to the bush does more good than harm, for a lot of rubbish and undergrowth is destroyed, allowing the feed to grow for the cattle during the ensuing year” | [190] | ||||||||||||||||
1909, February | Near Cherryville | “... regarded as the worst experienced in the neighbourhood for four years” | [191] | ||||||||||||||||
1910, February | Marble Hill | “... settlers … beat down the flames” “A fire swept up the valley towards (Norton Summit). Marble Hill: “The flames surged from hilltop to hilltop”. “The flames swept up a gully to the side of the Bungalow (at Marble Hill)” | [192] | ||||||||||||||||
1912, January | Marble Hill | “... vice-regal residence at Marble Hill narrowly escaped destruction”; “the stringybark and thick undergrowth provided excellent fuel”; “.. happily the conflagration had confined itself to the scrub”; “strong wind from the west” “pace estimated at fully 10 miles an hour” “sparks falling from the burning trees on to the roofs” | [193] | ||||||||||||||||
1912, February | Adelaide Hills | “… most appalling blaze that has ever been experienced in this portion of the State” [194]. “This was without a doubt a Black Thursday for Hahndorf and never before was such a terrible scene witnessed” (A map of the fires is presented.) [195] | [194,195] | ||||||||||||||||
1914, January | Adelaide Hills | “An extensive bush fire in the hills was visible from the city.” | [196] | ||||||||||||||||
1916, March | Adelaide Hills | “It (the fire) assumed serious dimensions” | [197] | ||||||||||||||||
1918, February | Montacute | “... extended over a distance of from 10 to 15 miles.” | “A devastating bush fire swept the Adelaide Hills” | [198] | |||||||||||||||
1920, February | Adelaide Hills | “.. large area of scrub” [199] | “... burned fiercely” [199] “... failure of the settlers to protect their homes ... ”. “Why, then, sleep on in a foolish insecurity?” [200] | [199,200] | |||||||||||||||
1923, February | Adelaide Hills: Morialta to Marble Hill | “about 1000 acres of rough country were laid bare” | “...bright glow above the hills” | [201] | |||||||||||||||
1926, February | Gawler, Port Gawler, Mt Crawford, Pewsey Vale | “Black Sunday” | [202] | ||||||||||||||||
1929, March | Mt Lofty Ranges | “Thousands of acres” | [203] | ||||||||||||||||
1930, February | Marble Hill | “The fire destroyed about 100 acres ..” | “... stringybark country adjoining the house” | [204] | |||||||||||||||
1931, February | Adelaide Hills | “Nearly 300 acres of scrub country ..” | “... near the Governor’s residence at Marble Hill” | [205] | |||||||||||||||
1933, February | Adelaide Hills | “Dense volumes of smoke” | [206] | ||||||||||||||||
1934, March | Mt Lofty Ranges | “At 8.30 a.m., the flames were roaring in the gully ...” | [207] | ||||||||||||||||
1935 | Mt Lofty region | [108] | |||||||||||||||||
1936, April | Adelaide Hills | “threatened the Governor’s residence at Marble Hill” | [208] | ||||||||||||||||
1938, April | Adelaide Hills | “...Tuesday morning. Fanned by a strong east wind and coming down the ranges, it appeared to threaten Governor’s summer residence”. | [209] | ||||||||||||||||
1939, January 10 | Adelaide Hills | “several hundred square miles” [210] | “some of the worst in the State’s history” [210]; 90 houses were lost [12] | [12,210] | |||||||||||||||
1940, March | Mt Lofty Ranges | “An entire gully leaped into blaze with a sudden change of wind” | [211] | ||||||||||||||||
1942, January, February | Mt Lofty, Waterfall Gully | [212] | |||||||||||||||||
January, 1943 | Rowland’s Flat, Lyndoch, Mount Pleasant, Eden Valley and Springton areas | “More than 15 square miles of scrub country ..” | Large flocks of sheep lost. | [213] | |||||||||||||||
1944, January | Adelaide Hills | About 500 acres. | [214] | ||||||||||||||||
1948, January | “… from the north, through the Mt Lofty ranges to Victor Harbor ...” | [215] | |||||||||||||||||
1950, February [114], April [216] | Near Eagle on the Hill, Mt Lofty region | 39 square km [216] | “A scrub fire threatened the viceregal residence at Marble Hill at 1 a.m. today” “... strong breeze ...” [216] | [114] (p. 54) and [216] | |||||||||||||||
1951, January | “Upper Sturt Estate” (Mt Lofty Ranges?) | Three policemen died. | [114] (p. 54) | ||||||||||||||||
1952 | My Lofty region | [108] | |||||||||||||||||
1955, January | Gawler to Strathalbyn; Marble Hill | 600 square miles | “most devastating bushfire” | [217] | |||||||||||||||
1957, February | Horsnell’s Gully | >2500 acres | “Fire sped up Horsnell’s Gully”. Burned “orchards, gardens, houses, scrub and forest” | [100] | |||||||||||||||
1958, 1959, 1960, 1961 | Mt Lofty Region | [108] | |||||||||||||||||
1980, February | Adelaide Hills | “numerous large bushfires” | Fifty one homes lost | [80] | |||||||||||||||
1983, February | Many fires including Cudlee Creek, Mt Lofty, Kuitpo-Ashbourne | - | Death of people; loss of plantations, orchards; and grazing land burned [79]; 28 killed, 300 houses lost [80] | [79,80] | |||||||||||||||
1985, January | Black Hill | 1500 ha | [218] | ||||||||||||||||
1986, March | Adelaide and Adelaide Hills | “40 reports of bushfires in and around the Adelaide area” | [80] | ||||||||||||||||
1987, November | Strathalbyn | 6000 ha | [218] | ||||||||||||||||
1988, January 7 | Morialta, Cleland National Park | [114] (p. 230) | |||||||||||||||||
1995, January | Adelaide Hills | “hundreds of thousands of hectares burnt” | [80] | ||||||||||||||||
1996, January | Adelaide Hills | 5000 people affected | [80] | ||||||||||||||||
1998, March | Adelaide Hills | [80] | |||||||||||||||||
1999, May | Mt Lofty Ranges | “scrub fire after a burn-off got out of control” | [114] (p. 279) | ||||||||||||||||
2000, June [sic] | Brownhill Creek | 1000 ha | [218] | ||||||||||||||||
2001, December | Hillbank | 350 ha | [218] | ||||||||||||||||
2005, January | Mt Osmond | 120 ha | [218] | ||||||||||||||||
2007, January | Mt Bold reservoir area | [88] | |||||||||||||||||
2013, May | Cherryville, Basket Range, Mount Lofty | 730 ha | 1 house burned | [219] | |||||||||||||||
2014, January | Eden Valley | 25,000 ha (including area outside AMLR) | [218] |
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Gill, A.M.; McKenna, D.J.; Wouters, M.A. Landscape Fire, Biodiversity Decline and a Rapidly Changing Milieu: A Microcosm of Global Issues in an Australian Biodiversity Hotspot. Land 2014, 3, 1091-1136. https://doi.org/10.3390/land3031091
Gill AM, McKenna DJ, Wouters MA. Landscape Fire, Biodiversity Decline and a Rapidly Changing Milieu: A Microcosm of Global Issues in an Australian Biodiversity Hotspot. Land. 2014; 3(3):1091-1136. https://doi.org/10.3390/land3031091
Chicago/Turabian StyleGill, A. Malcolm, David J. McKenna, and Michael A. Wouters. 2014. "Landscape Fire, Biodiversity Decline and a Rapidly Changing Milieu: A Microcosm of Global Issues in an Australian Biodiversity Hotspot" Land 3, no. 3: 1091-1136. https://doi.org/10.3390/land3031091
APA StyleGill, A. M., McKenna, D. J., & Wouters, M. A. (2014). Landscape Fire, Biodiversity Decline and a Rapidly Changing Milieu: A Microcosm of Global Issues in an Australian Biodiversity Hotspot. Land, 3(3), 1091-1136. https://doi.org/10.3390/land3031091