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Article

Multifunctional Greenway Approach for Landscape Planning and Reclamation of a Post-Mining District: Cartagena-La Unión, SE Spain

by
Angel Faz
,
Sebla Kabas
,
Raul Zornoza
,
Silvia Martínez-Martínez
and
Jose A. Acosta
*
Sustainable Use, Management and Reclamation of Soil and Water Research Group, Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Paseo Alfonso XIII, 52, 30203 Cartagena, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Land 2025, 14(8), 1657; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14081657
Submission received: 3 July 2025 / Revised: 9 August 2025 / Accepted: 13 August 2025 / Published: 15 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Landscapes Across the Mediterranean)
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Versions Notes

Abstract

Establishing a sustainable framework for remediating environmental degradation caused by historical mining operations in the Sierra Minera of Cartagena-La Unión, southeastern Spain, is a critical imperative. When the reclamation requirements of the post-mining district are considered in the context of its critical location, nested among conflicting land uses, the development of practical solutions to restore ecological and cultural functions emerge as a landscape planning challenge. The greenway approach emphasizes the primary ecological and functional corridors that sustain the vitality of the region; therefore, it is essential to preserve and enhance these critical lifelines. This study aimed to design a localized greenway network to support the conservation of key ecological, agricultural, and cultural resources within the area, while simultaneously promoting reclamation activities in degraded zones. The greenway corridor is built upon key elements: conservation areas, post-mining cultural resources, dry riverbeds, and agricultural zones. In the light of greenway approach, planners and land managers can make their decisions more judiciously by considering the priority zones. The protection, leveraging, and reclamation of significant resources can be provided through a multifunctional greenway approach as seen in the case of Cartagena-La Unión Post-Mining District.

1. Introduction

The destruction of natural habitats and the disruption of ecological system—resulting from landscapes being broken into disconnected patches—create symbolic scars that now stand as some of the most critical threats to global biodiversity. These impacts have emerged as a central focus in the field of ecological science [1,2]. In this context, landscape ecology provides a critical framework for understanding the destruction of natural habitats and the disruption of ecological systems. Essentially, landscape ecology examines the spatial patterns and processes that shape ecosystems across scales, emphasizing the interactions between land use, habitat configuration, and ecological function. When natural habitats are fragmented or degraded—often due to urbanization, mining, deforestation, or agricultural expansion—landscape connectivity is compromised, leading to reduced species movement, altered nutrient cycles, and diminished ecosystem resilience [3,4].
The greenways concept, increasingly accepted as a planning and design approach, has become popular in Europe over the past two decades. It is a suitable tool for developing the ecological quality of natural processes and the conservation of biodiversity and cultural and historical heritage [5,6]. At the same time, greenways offer a wide range of opportunities within the framework of sustainability, including recreation, education, and cultural as well as aesthetic benefits [7]. Fabos [8] defines greenways as linear network systems of land that serve for various purposes including connection and protection of ecological, recreational–touristic, and/or historical–cultural purposes compatible with the sustainable land use concept. Delineation of greenways is provided by the application of worldwide recognized landscape planning principles [9].
The foundational principle of the greenways concept is the co-occurrence of the most valuable landscape resources (historical–cultural, ecological, natural, and recreational) in common spatial distribution patterns in the landscape especially in corridor-like areas such as natural streams, ridges, steep slopes, and coastal areas [9]. Lewis [10] suggested that, when properly safeguarded, these landscape patterns can serve as guiding frameworks for directing sustainable growth and development. These patterns were classified as greenways and were utilized as guides to create priority zones [11]. It has been remarked in many studies that when the most valuable landscape resources (environmentally sensitive areas) such as wetlands, fauna habitats, steep slopes, cultural–historical resources, and significant agricultural areas are connected, they could form greenway networks providing ecological, cultural, and recreational advantages to society [12,13,14]. Luymes and Tamminga [15] indicated that such an interconnected landscape brings public safety together.
Abandoned areas offer conflicting potentials—development or conservation—and should be reclaimed through integration into the greenway network [8]. While conventional reclamation techniques such as isolated soil remediation or industrial redevelopment focus on site-specific recovery and short-term functionality, they often overlook the broader ecological, social, and cultural dimensions of landscape restoration. In contrast, the greenway approach integrates ecological connectivity, public accessibility, and cultural–historical continuity within a unified planning framework. This study selects greenways not merely as a design tool but as a multidimensional strategy aligned with sustainability principles. In addition, existing reclamation strategies often fall short in addressing the multifaceted nature of ecological recovery. This study responds to several key research gaps: the disconnect between natural and cultural dimensions in restoration efforts, the scarcity of longitudinal models that examine landscape connectivity through linear features such as greenways, and the limited exploration of socio-cultural benefits, like public engagement and cultural identity reinforcement. Furthermore, traditional techniques often overlook essential sustainability considerations. By investigating greenways as a holistic solution that bridges these gaps, this study contributes to a more comprehensive framework for sustainable landscape reclamation.
Spain, with its 1800 km of greenways operated in 80 routes, is one of the most important greenway promoter countries in Europe [16,17]. Even so, abandoned mining areas distributed almost to the entire country come up as an unsolvable landscape planning issue [18,19,20].
Historic mining landscapes hold profound heritage significance due to their layered physical remnants, industrial technologies, and social histories tied to labor and community life [21]. Recognized as cultural landscapes by organizations such as UNESCO, these sites exemplify the intertwined evolution of human activity and natural processes [22]. Their adaptive reuse offers a strategic opportunity to transform post-industrial terrains into multifunctional spaces—ranging from heritage tourism hubs and educational centers to green infrastructure and renewable energy sites. Successful reuse requires an integrated approach that balances environmental remediation with cultural preservation and inclusive planning, ensuring that both ecological integrity and historical identity are sustained for future generations [23].
As a part of the Seventh Framework Programme Project “Integrated European Industrial Risk Reduction System (IRIS)” carried out in different European countries (Poland, Romania, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom), two mine tailing heaps located in the Cartagena-La Unión Post-Mining District (CLPMD) in southeast Spain were reclaimed to mitigate environmental risks through soil and landscape reclamation efforts [24,25]. Mine tailing heaps are large, engineered impoundments used to store the slurry waste generated during mineral extraction processes. This slurry typically consists of finely ground rock, water, and residual processing chemicals such as cyanide, sulfates, and heavy metals including arsenic, lead, zinc, etc. The tailing heaps serve a critical role in isolating these potentially toxic materials from the surrounding environment, allowing solid particles to settle while water can be decanted for reuse or treated. To minimize environmental risks, tailing heaps were constructed with containment structures like earthen dams or reinforced embankments and are often lined with impermeable materials to prevent seepage into soil and groundwater. When mine tailings dry out, the residual material can harden and naturally form pyramid-like structures. These formations result from wind and water erosion acting on the fine-grained, compacted surfaces, gradually shaping angular ridges and pointed mounds, being characterized by a strong acidification process, high salinity, scarce or null vegetation, and heavy metal accumulation presenting special challenges as regards storage, stabilization, and remediation [26]. The project aimed to (1) ameliorate the soil conditions of the tailing heaps for obtaining a vegetative cover and therefore to minimize their adverse effects of past metal mining practices for the protection of public health, safety, and general welfare; (2) create landscape designs on the mine tailing heaps to assign them specific land-use functions that contribute to local planning and recover them in the context of ecological and social benefits—enhancing their environmental, historical, and cultural significance.
For the CLPMD, despite having a significant socio-economic dynamism potential (tourism, agriculture, exploitation of salt marshes, fishing, aquaculture, and post-mining related activities) around it [27,28], the lack of an integrated land planning system related to the conflicted surrounding land uses (natural protected areas, industrial areas, urban zones, touristic areas, commercial ports, leisure harbors, and agricultural fields) created difficulties in the decision making process of mine tailings’ (~1.2 ha and 2.5 ha) landscape designs [29] when they are considered in a larger-scale unplanned piece of land (Cartagena-La Unión Post-Mining District, ~50 km2). Due to the lack of spatial and functional integration between fragmented areas and the broader landscape, the need for a prudent, integrated land planning system has emerged—one that supports harmonious people–nature relationships and fosters sustainable landscape transformations. Therefore, the main objectives of this study were to (1) develop an integrated local greenway network preserving the significant resources and values of the district, (2) develop the greenway network as a part of a reclamation process for degraded areas, and (3) contribute to the dissemination of the greenway concept.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

Cartagena-La Unión Post-Mining District is located in the south-east of Spain (Figure 1). The mountainous formation of Sierra Minera Cartagena-La Unión stretches from east to west along almost 20 km in the study area, being located between the coasts from Cartagena City to Cabo de Palos. Its maximum elevation reaches 431 m.
The district was considered with the surrounding representative land uses (conservation, industrial, urban, agriculture, and natural areas), and the study area was limited by the highways CT-32 and MU-312 in the north and by the Mediterranean Sea in the south. In the north, there are fertile arable lands; in the east, there are urban areas and one of the most important lagoons of the Mediterranean Area, Mar Menor Lagoon; in the south, there are protected areas and Mediterranean Sea; and in the west, there are industrial areas. Semiarid Mediterranean climate conditions, long warm summers, and short moderate winters with a mean annual temperature of 17 °C, mean annual rainfall of 280–320 mm, and potential evapotranspiration rate higher than 900 mm year−1 [30] determine a natural flora adapted to drought and high temperatures that contains small formations of Pinus halepensis Mill. and groups of typical Mediterranean bushes with xerophytic characteristics [31].
Cartagena-La Unión Post-Mining District is one of the oldest and, in the past, commercially important post-mining areas of Iberian Peninsula. It had been exploited for approximately 2500 years until the activities ceased in 1991 [32]. The main extracted metals from this almost 50 km2 area were the following: silver, lead, zinc, and iron [33].
In this long period of mining activities, the landscape morphology (altitudinal changes between 0 and 500 m above sea level) was inevitably completely modified by the creation of an open-cut mine, mine tailing heaps, and mine tunnels (Figure 2); while some parts were left formally stable as how they were before, almost the entire area was negatively affected by the adverse effects of the mine operating.

2.2. Methods

In this study, the nature protection concept is considered as a series of strategies focused on preserving natural and cultural resources, as well as reclaiming and improving degraded land. Greenways can be seen as landscape restoration frameworks because of their connection creating characteristic in fragmented landscapes [34]. In this sense, reclamation of mining tailing heaps, using amendments, marble waste, and native vegetation, have been reported in several studies [35,36,37]. Also, some of these tailing heaps can serve for recreational activities [38]. Besides mining tailing heaps, some other mining forms such as mining pits and tunnels and mining heritage can be utilized for several recreational activities [31]. Consequently, this study aims to place emphasis not only on the landscape design of the specified mine tailings but also on comprehensive planning across the entire Cartagena-La Unión Post-Mining District (CLPMD). The objective is to develop rational and practical land use strategies for tailing heaps, while emphasizing the importance of a localized planning framework. In the context of greenway planning, landscape planning methods, grounded in landscape analysis, assessment, proposal development, and evaluation, are commonly employed, as they facilitate the identification and valuation of key environmental and cultural resources [9,39].
  • Data collection
Topographic and land-use maps, along with high-resolution aerial imagery, were acquired from the “Cartography Service of the Ministry of Public Works and Land Use Planning” (Murcia, Spain). These geospatial datasets constituted the primary data sources for this study, enabling detailed spatial analysis of terrain morphology, land cover distribution, and anthropogenic modifications within the study area.
The map of the most significant areas was created by the usage of data layers from the land-use map (2010), and the patrimonial resources were assigned on it using a satellite image with a grid size of 0.5 m, topographical maps, and the plan data of patrimonial resources from Martos-Miralles (2007) [40]. Overlapped layers of the most significant resources and assigned patrimonial resources were supported with the interpretation of satellite images, field checks, and expert opinions. Additionally, the related literature and interviews with local people and experts were used as data sources. The data for the identification and evaluation of the greenway system were stored and treated using ArcView GIS 3.1 [41]. Spatial links for significant resources were delineated by the assessment of homogenous areas.
  • Procedure
A standard methodology of landscape planning which includes the steps of analysis, assessment, and identification of valuable resources was employed, and a flowchart of the procedure is shown in Figure 3 [9].
Natural and cultural factors such as geomorphology, physiography, natural drainage network, land use, and historic/cultural sites were analyzed to identify the most valuable resources of the area, including the potential connectivity resources that might be used to create linkages [14]. Assessments of the resources were made in terms of biodiversity, ecological functions, water–soil conservation, reclamation potential, and natural/historical characteristics. Reclamation points were prioritized based on a multi-criteria evaluation that considered both ecological risk and landscape value. Soil parameters—such as pH levels, concentrations of heavy metals, and indicators of vegetation stress—were indeed quantified to assess contamination severity across sites.
The methodology was modified for reclamation planning purposes. In addition to natural and cultural factors, areas within the CLPMD with reclamation potential were evaluated for their suitability to be incorporated into the greenway network through targeted reclamation efforts. To conduct a thorough survey of all areas within the CLPMD, the area was divided into 28 parts via grid sectorization (approximately 224 km2) using a 1:20,000 scale topographic map and the national and digital orthophotos (Figure 4).
The division into 8 km2 units was strategically chosen to balance spatial detail with analytical manageability. This intermediate scale provided sufficient resolution to detect meaningful variations in ecological degradation, mining heritage distribution, and soil contamination patterns without becoming overly fragmented or data-intensive. In addition, the 8 km2 scale aligned well with the regional structure of former mining zones and ecological corridors, offering a practical framework for assessing both natural and cultural landscape attributes. Overall, this scale proved capable of capturing fine-grained heterogeneity while maintaining a coherent analytical framework across the entire area.
The significant resources identified were as follows: (1) Protected dry riverbeds: dry riverbeds, though seasonally inactive, are crucial geomorphological features that support episodic water flow and sediment transport. They serve as ecological corridors and buffer zones against flash flooding. Their protection helps preserve natural drainage patterns and landscape stability. (2) Agricultural areas: these zones are defined by fertile soils and established infrastructure supporting crop and livestock production. They contribute to food security, rural livelihoods, and landscape multifunctionality. Sustainable management enhances their role in ecological connectivity and land-use resilience. (3) Protected natural areas: designated to conserve biodiversity and ecosystem services, these areas include reserves and ecological corridors. They regulate climate, protect native species, and maintain ecological processes. Strict land-use controls ensure long-term environmental integrity. (4) Cultural resources: cultural resources encompass historically and ethnographically significant sites and practices. They reinforce regional identity and support cultural tourism and education. Their preservation requires balanced planning that respects heritage while enabling adaptive reuse.
To assess landscape quality in a spatially consistent manner, homogenous zones were identified and analyzed using the official land-use classification provided by the Cartography Service of the Ministry of Public Works and Land Use Planning (Murcia, Spain). This classification system enabled a structured interpretation of land cover types and their spatial relationships, facilitating the examination of functional and ecological interdependencies among different land uses. The resulting analysis provided a foundational framework for understanding landscape dynamics and guiding strategic planning decisions within the study area.

3. Results

3.1. The Most Valuable Resources

The four most valuable resources were determined in the Cartagena-La Unión Post-Mining District (Figure 5). These spatial configurations and resource distributions encompass hydrological drainage systems, designated ecological conservation zones, cultivated agricultural landscapes, and sites of cultural and historical significance (mining heritage).
A.
Natural drainage network
The coastline of the Murcia Region, and thereby the study area, is characterized by the absence of permanent hydrologic resources. The natural drainage network, even if it consists solely of protected dry riverbeds subject to certain periodicity to flood risks in the CLPMD, has a connectivity potential between different land uses.
B.
Nature conservation areas
According to the Council Directive (92/43/EEC) [43], “Calblanque, Monte de las Cenizas y Peña del Águila” (2822 ha); “Sierra de la Fausilla” (791 ha); “El Cabezo de San Gines” (160 ha); and “El Cabezo del Sabinar” (105 ha) have been under the protection of Natura 2000 since 1992 and the Site of Community Importance (SCI) since 2000. In accordance with the Council Directive (79/409/EEC) [44], “Sierra de la Fausilla”, due to its importance of reserving bird habitats, has been taken under the conservation of the Special Protection Area (SPA) since 1979, while “Calblanque, Monte de las Cenizas y Peña del Águila” was also declared as a regional natural park by the act 4/1992 of land management and protection of the Region of Murcia in 1992 (Figure 5). These protected areas are characterized by vegetation of the xerophytic Mediterranean shrub communities, which highlights the presence of many endemic and Iberian–African plant species, some of which constitute endangered species such as Caralluma europaea Guss., Sideritis marminorensis Obón & D.Rivera, Limonium carthaginense (Rouy) C.E. Hubb. & Sandwith, Teucrium carthaginense Lange, Anthemis chrysantha J. Gay, and Teucrium freynii Reverchon ex Willk.
C.
Agricultural areas
Agricultural areas are characterized by highly productive and nutrient-rich soils that support intensive crop cultivation. These areas benefit from well-developed infrastructure, including irrigation systems, transportation networks, and storage facilities, which facilitate efficient agricultural operations. Additionally, they are managed using sustainable practices that optimize soil health, water use, and crop yields, ensuring long-term sustainability and resilience against environmental stressors.
D.
Mining heritage
The region exhibits a mining legacy spanning approximately 2500 years [32]. A total of 160 geospatially referenced mining-related features—comprising structural remnants and morphological forms detailed in Table 1—have been systematically identified and mapped in Figure 5. Among the listed cultural resources, only a few come from the military and urban heritage. The assessment of these cultural/historical resources showed concentration patterns along streambed corridors and ridgelines in the surroundings of urban areas and inside of the protected areas, where the headframes are most abundant (64 headframes), followed by the chimneys of factories, storages, foundries and galleries (19 chimneys), and mining stoves (18 units).

3.2. Homogenous Zones

Homogenous zones of landscape quality were examined by considering the land-use classification of “Cartography Service, Ministry of Public Works and Land Use Planning” (Murcia, Spain) to clarify the interrelations between different land uses. Twelve different homogenous zones were identified as follows (Figure 6 and Table 2):
(1)
Riverbeds: dry riverbeds are located in the north of the area between protected areas and cultural resources.
(2)
Protected areas: cover the largest areas among the classified categories being located generally on the coastline of the entire zone.
(3)
Agricultural areas: although in the study area agricultural areas seem relatively independent from the other land uses, on a larger scale the continuation of riverbeds towards the north provides a significant connection between them. Connecting other land uses with agricultural areas is essential when designing an effective greenway network, especially in Mediterranean landscapes where agriculture holds deep cultural and ecological significance. These agricultural zones—often characterized by traditional practices such as terraced farming, olive groves, vineyards, and irrigation systems—are not just productive spaces but living cultural landscapes shaped over centuries. Integrating them into the greenway design enhances continuity across the territory, linking ecological corridors with areas of historical identity and social relevance.
(4)
Geomorphological protection: slopes exceeding a 50% gradient are classified as critical zones for geomorphological protection due to their susceptibility to erosion, landslides, and other mass-wasting processes. These steep terrain features are extensively distributed throughout the entire study area, necessitating comprehensive spatial management and conservation strategies.
(5)
Abandoned zones of national defense: composed of three areas not directly connected with the post-mining district, but they are nested in the surrounding land uses. In the south two of them are inside of the environmental protection areas and one, in the west, is surrounded by industrial and natural areas.
(6)
Post-mining zone: the high visual impact generated by opencast mining in CLPMD affects broad areas with the occupation of mining pits, sterile materials resulting from the mineral washing, and the deteriorations of the landform.
(7)
Urban area: the study area includes four population nuclei, La Unión mining town and the villages of Alumbres, Portman, and Llano del Beal, with a population of 16,745, 3371, 1044, and 2273 inhabitants, respectively. Atamaria resorts, with their golf courses and wide green open spaces, also serve as a newly emerging settlement.
(8)
Suitable area for urbanization: several areas in the surroundings of the La Union Town are shown as suitable areas for future urban development.
(9)
Unprogrammed mining area: this area is occupied by a large part of significantly important industrial settlements. Its nearby location to the nature conservation areas draws attention.
(10)
Portman Bay: approximately 57 million tons of waste were dumped into the Mediterranean Sea over the operation period from 1957 to 1990. Almost 30 million tons of this waste filled the Portman Bay, achieving a depth of 10 m at its center. The bay is considered one of the most contaminated spots in the entire Mediterranean.
(11)
Port: this port is one of the major bulk ports of Spain having 3850 m of quays; especially, it is important in liquid bulk, petroleum, and gas. It has a clean traffic way which passes along the edge of Cartagena City.
(12)
Natural zone: apart from the classified categories above, the rest of the area was considered as a natural zone. Even though this zone presents a high vegetation biodiversity, negative effects of post-mining activities are also seen in some of these natural areas.

3.3. Greenway Corridors Design

Based on the evaluation of ecologically and functionally significant areas, the reclamation potential, and the spatial distribution of homogenous landscape units, greenway corridors were systematically delineated. These corridors (Figure 7) aim to enhance landscape connectivity, support biodiversity conservation, and facilitate sustainable land-use planning. In the corridor system, interconnection of legally protected areas was suggested through the post-mining areas, some of which could be rehabilitated. This interconnection provides free movement of the fauna (e.g., rabbits “Oryctolagus cuniculus”, foxes “Vulpes vulpes”, field mice “Apodemus sylvaticus”, and wild boars “Sus scrofa”), but a deeper investigation of the species is needed for any especial zoning in required places.

4. Discussion

4.1. Significant Resources and Their Environmental/Social/Cultural Values

This study aimed to delineate a multifunctional greenway corridor by prioritizing the preservation of key resources and evaluating the reclamation potential within the CLPMD. The initial assessment focused on identifying the most significant resources (Figure 3). Among the significant resources, the hydrologic network of the CLPMD, despite being situated in a dry ecosystem, holds numerous ecological values and plays vital roles, including supporting biodiversity, regulating microclimates, facilitating groundwater recharge, and providing cultural and recreational benefits to local communities. For example, in Australia, Todd River is known for its cultural significance, while Mitchell River is known for its vehicle transport route characteristic, and some dry riverbeds serve as habitats for terrestrial biota; in Italy, Tagliamento River is used as wildlife corridors; and in Spain the rivers are storage sites for organic matter. For safeguarding the many valuable aspects of dry riverbeds, protection of them should be incorporated into biodiversity and conservation planning studies [45].
The development of greenways contributes to the conservation of natural ecosystems while simultaneously facilitating tourism and recreational activities [46]. Hepcan et al. [6] explains the importance of the creation of an ecological network, especially for fauna, between the key biodiversity areas in Izmir (Turkey) and indicates the significance of other human dynamics for maintaining the viability of the networks. In this study the proposed linkages between protected areas also would support the free movement of fauna (e.g., rabbits, foxes, field mice, and wild boars), but a detailed inventory of the fauna is needed for further research. In terms of recreation, it should be restated that nature conservation areas of the region, especially in summer, are exposed to population increases due to the purpose of mass tourism [28]. To reduce the environmental pressures caused by mass tourism in former mining areas, it is essential to promote ecotourism as a sustainable alternative. Ecotourism encourages responsible travel practices that prioritize conservation, heritage appreciation, and minimal ecological footprint. By integrating environmental education into ecotourism initiatives—through interpretive trails, guided visits, and community-led storytelling—visitors can develop a deeper understanding of the natural and cultural significance of these landscapes. This educational component fosters respect for local ecosystems and reinforces the importance of preserving fragile post-industrial environments. Ultimately, ecotourism not only mitigates the negative impacts of conventional tourism but also transforms these areas into spaces of learning, restoration, and long-term stewardship. Currently, the cultural–historical potential of the CLPMD is not leveraging tourism even though it is located on an important tourism route. Development of a greenway corridor would improve ecotourism activities in the region while triggering the reclamation activities.
The location of the agricultural area fields in the north, inside and outside of the study area, strengthens the idea of riverbed reclamation since they are the potential hydrological connectivity resources between the post-mining district and the agricultural fields themselves [47,48]. As noted by Jongman et al. [13], unlike Western European ecological networks, which typically avoid interfering with private land ownership and agricultural or forestry development, greenways designed with a nature conservation strategy should actively promote the integration of agricultural and forestry practices. Mining heritage was one of the most important driving forces for the creation of this greenway approach. It is the prominent historical–cultural, educational, and recreational feature of the district. Greenways’ development without recreational elements is almost impossible [49]. Despite national recognition of this value, legal conservation status in the context of mining heritage was not realized because of the lack of reclamation plans. This planning deficiency also affects the surrounding natural and protected areas negatively. Restoration of the mining heritage by valuating its recreational potential and its cooperation is fundamental for the creation of a greenway system in the CLPMD [31]. In the context of the restoration and reclamation concept besides mining heritage, the reclamation of adequate mine tailings should be provided by evaluating their recreational, educational, and didactic potentials [29].

4.2. Reclamation Potential of Degraded Mining Areas

The environmental impacts of the long-term mining activities include large areas of soil characterized by strong acidification processes, high salinity, accumulation of metals, deficiency of organic matter, and scarce or null vegetation. High amounts of mine wastes, containing materials of high Fe-oxyhydroxides, sulphates, and potentially leachable elevated concentrations of heavy metals and metalloids (mainly Zn, Pb, Cd, and As) due to extreme acidic conditions were accumulated in almost 80 mine tailing heaps [26]. The government prohibited the dumping of the mining wastes to dry streambed and to the sea in 1955, and then the mining wastes were dumped on the terrain to create the mine tailing heaps until 1991. Nevertheless, these mine wastes have been transported downstream during periods of high rainfall and runoff, while at the same time these unvegetated tailings have been exposed to eolian dispersion, especially due to the semiarid climate conditions of the region [50]. Consequently, an excessive amount of toxic metals continue to relocate in the surrounding ecosystems. Especially in periods of high rainfall, streambeds have an important role in the transportation of these materials to the Mediterranean Sea coasts [26] and Mar Menor coastal lagoon [51]. Moreover, sediments and alluviums also negatively affect agricultural fields [52] due to the effect of metals on plant toxicity, e.g., the soil–plant toxicity thresholds of Kabata-Pendias and Pendias [53] indicate that typical crop phytotoxicity starts when As in shoots reaches 5–20 mg kg−1 and Pb upper toxic levels range from 100 to 500 mg kg−1. Also, stability of the tailings constitutes another risk factor for public safety. In 1972, after strong rainfall, collapsing of a mine tailing caused the loss of one life. Therefore, the high heavy metal concentration context of the tailings is an undesirable condition especially for nearby settlements [31]. Additionally, the mine tailings show a similar distribution to the mining heritage, being close to the streambed corridors and valleys, especially resulting from the nature of the mining process mechanism.
Therefore, the mine tailings, because of their threats to the environment and human health [54] and their transformation possibilities into the recreational and educational areas [29,38], are considered as primary, important reclamation points.

4.3. Interrelations Between Different Land Uses

Preservation of nature conservation areas and providing connectivity through spatial connected landscapes are very important in many countries [6]. Through the greenway approach this connectivity will be provided between separated parts of nature conservation areas in the CLPMD. The interrelations between different land-use types were assessed by using distribution patterns of homogenous zones (Figure 6). Among these homogeneous zones, riverbeds, including dry riverbeds that are periodically subject to flood risks, have been recommended for inclusion in conservation planning efforts [45]. In the CLPMD, they show a potential connectivity characteristic with their critical location between protected areas and cultural resources.
Geomorphological protection areas are suitable only for hiking and nature protection [55]. Due to their high visual sensitivity, these areas should be incorporated into the greenway system with appropriate measures to mitigate erosion risks [56]. The spatially clustering character of these resources gives them a gap-completing character between riverbeds, protected areas, and cultural resources. Abandoned zones of national defense generally take place on the coastline and have a touristic and cultural attraction in the region. Because of their location, they are suitable for being an end or start point of an excursion or hiking activity. The west one, surrounded by industrial and natural areas, is located next to the motorway, the city center, and some popular beaches. Instead of realizing its restoration, it has been included in a demolition project. Within the framework of this study, their restoration and inclusion to the greenway corridor would be remarkable with respect to cultural heritage. Environmental problems come from the past mining activities which isolate the unique cultural–historical importance of the CLPMD, and protected areas nested in the study area are affected negatively under the pressure of serious environmental threats especially because of the construction of mine tailing heaps. It is obvious that the development of a reclamation plan is an urgent need for the region. Small initiatives of local administrations such as the foundation of a mining park, the restoration of several mining structures, and plantation efforts should be supported with larger scale projects. Many surface-mining artificial landscape forms can serve recreational utilities such as green areas, golf courses, sculptural uses, or lakes as is realized with the Anaconda copper smelter, Montana zinc mine tunnel, or Utah gold mine [57]. Furthermore, the tourism mobility around the CLPMD can be canalized to the post-mining district by the qualification of the mining heritage with ecotourism mobility as mentioned in the example of Australian open-cut coal mining landscapes [58].
Creation of a greenway network makes contributions to ecotourism and socio-cultural mobility in the region, and thus the socio-economic requirements of the region can be supported once again. This socio-economic development would be particularly important for the La Unión mining town citizens who suffered because of its past mining-dependent socio-economic monocultural situation [31].
The inclusion of some future urban areas into the greenway system was found to be suitable because of their location between riverbeds and cultural resources. Urban development in these areas is not recommendable. The spontaneous distribution of the unprogrammed urban area causes landscape fragmentation. It is obvious that the area cannot support more industrial developments. Its location has quite negative effects on the city center and protected areas. The area should be isolated from the surroundings by providing a buffer system. In the example of Michigan’s Ramsar Wetland, an industrial brownfield was transformed into an ecological buffer [59], but in the case of the CLPMP, because of the foresight into land-use planning deficiencies, creation of a buffer system is more complicated.
Portman Bay is currently handled within the framework of an environmental reclamation project [55]. Its critical location between protected areas and its negative effects to the marine ecosystem are the driving forces for its reclamation [19]. In the case of reclamation, integration into the greenway system is recommended to enhance ecological connectivity and landscape functionality.
The port is mostly surrounded by unprogrammed urban areas, while only in the south is it surrounded by protected areas. Separation of the port from the neighboring protected areas and thereby from the greenway corridor is recommendable. In this way, the negative effects that arise from the contiguity of these conflicting land uses (commercial ports and nature protected areas) can be minimized.
The natural zones are suitable to serve as buffer zones for the protection of greenway corridors and protected areas. Furthermore, reclamation efforts should be strategically implemented at locations that bridge discontinuities within the corridor system.

4.4. Greenway Corridors

The design of the corridors reflects their alignment along the main dry riverbeds and their passage through post-mining areas of exceptional cultural value and restoration potential. As such, both the length and width of the corridors vary considerably across the landscape (Figure 7). The overall length corresponds to the extent of the dry river channels, adapting to natural meanders and topographic shifts, while the width fluctuates from broad segments, where full restoration and integration of cultural features are feasible, to narrow “pinch points” where industrial infrastructure or protected zones constrain expansion. The corridors’ width also reflects the characteristics of the territory. In sections that follow the course of dry riverbeds, it can reach dimensions between 25 and 50 m, allowing for both ecological restoration and the incorporation of significant cultural features. By contrast, within protected areas, particularly those with high environmental sensitivity, pathways are considerably narrower, typically ranging from 5 to 10 m, in accordance with conservation regulations. As for length, the routes vary depending on natural conditions and connectivity goals, with stretches ranging from 1 to 10 km.
The integration of vineyards and olive groves into the greenway network represents a valuable opportunity to enhance both the ecological functionality and cultural identity of the landscape. These perennial agricultural systems can contribute to biodiversity conservation, soil stabilization, and aesthetic enrichment, while also supporting local economies and traditional land-use practices. However, their successful incorporation requires a strategic and adaptive planning approach that rigorously considers site-specific environmental constraints. Issues such as residual soil contamination, a legacy of past industrial and mining activities, and limited water availability, especially in semiarid or drought-prone regions, must be carefully evaluated. Establishing these agroecosystems within greenway corridors demands the application of sustainable land management techniques, including precision irrigation, organic soil amendments, and integrated pest management, to mitigate ecological risks and ensure long-term viability. Furthermore, spatial analysis and environmental monitoring should be employed to guide the selection of suitable locations, optimize resource use, and maintain the ecological integrity of the greenway network. When properly managed, vineyards and olive groves can serve as multifunctional landscape elements that reinforce green infrastructure, promote ecosystem services, and foster resilient rural development.
Greenways play a critical role in mitigating flood risks by integrating nature-based solutions into the landscape. Using permeable surfaces, restored wetlands, and strategically placed sediment retaining walls, these corridors absorb and slow down stormwater, reducing runoff and preventing flash flooding. Their alignment will restore natural floodplains, allowing excess water to disperse safely during heavy rainfall events, which helps reduce pressure on downstream infrastructure. Vegetated buffer zones between urban areas and waterways not only trap sediment and pollutants but also serve as protective margins against erosion.
Greenways will help address contamination by acting like natural filters and buffers within the landscape. Through the integration of vegetation, restored soils, and wetlands, they can absorb pollutants such as heavy metals and excess nutrients commonly found in post-mining sites. These corridors will incorporate phytoremediation strategies, where specific plants are selected for their ability to extract or neutralize contaminants from the soil and water. Additionally, greenways will reduce the spread of pollutants by stabilizing eroded areas and preventing sediment transport into nearby water bodies. By reconnecting fragmented ecosystems and improving soil health, they not only contain contamination but also contribute to long-term ecological restoration and resilience.
Landscape planning and reclamation in the CLPMD is an urgent regional requirement. This study aims to create a multifunctional greenway system to overcome this requirement by minimizing the environmental risks originated from past mining activities. Minimization of the environmental risks in the entire CLPMD is not totally feasible or economic. Development of a greenway corridor system would help to run the ecologic functions and social–economic processes in priority zones. For the subsequently ongoing self-reclamation process of the post-mining zone, improvements of these functions are vital. For the reclamation works that are not considering the natural processes with an integral approach, it is not possible to produce sustainable landscape reclamation and planning solutions.

5. Conclusions

The multifunctional uses and ecological potential of greenways, along with the protection of ecologically significant corridors, demonstrate that greenways serve as effective instruments for integrating single-purpose initiatives into a broader, more comprehensive planning framework. In this context, the creation of spatially and functionally interconnected landscapes generates mutual benefits for both human society and natural ecosystems. The urgent landscape reclamation and planning requirement of Cartagena La Union Post-Mining District in an integrated manner has been hardly mentioned in Spain up to now. This study introduces the multifunctional greenway approach based on spatial interrelations of the most valuable resources, reclamation potential, and land uses. This multifunctional greenway approach can serve as a landscape reclamation technique and a planning tool in degraded areas by determining the priority zones of reclamation. In these ecologically and culturally significant corridors, landscape planners must adopt more rigorous and context-sensitive land-use strategies to ensure sustainable development and minimize environmental degradation. However, a detailed site analysis should be conducted for each parcel to design the trails with precision and contextual sensitivity. Protection of the corridors must be provided through a combination of landownership, land-use regulation, and policies to avoid inappropriate land-use developments in the corridors.
It is important to highlight that spatial and functional opportunities for social, cultural, and economic demands must be considered in an ecological context for the sustainability and viability of the proposed greenways.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.M.-M. and R.Z.; methodology, S.K.; software, S.K. and J.A.A.; formal analysis, S.K.; investigation, S.M.-M. and S.K.; resources, A.F.; data curation, S.M.-M.; writing—original draft preparation, S.K.; writing—review and editing, R.Z. and J.A.A.; visualization, S.K. and J.A.A.; supervision, J.A.A.; project administration, A.F.; funding acquisition, A.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the European Union FP7 Project No: CP-IP 213968-2 IRIS.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Location of Cartagena-La Unión Post-Mining District, SE Spain.
Figure 1. Location of Cartagena-La Unión Post-Mining District, SE Spain.
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Figure 2. Some examples of open-cut mine (a), mine tailing heaps (b), and mine tunnels (c) in Cartagena-La Unión Post-Mining District.
Figure 2. Some examples of open-cut mine (a), mine tailing heaps (b), and mine tunnels (c) in Cartagena-La Unión Post-Mining District.
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Figure 3. Flowchart of the procedure for greenway corridor planning in Cartagena-La Unión Mining District (modified from Ribeiro and Barao [9] using Kabas et al. [42]).
Figure 3. Flowchart of the procedure for greenway corridor planning in Cartagena-La Unión Mining District (modified from Ribeiro and Barao [9] using Kabas et al. [42]).
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Figure 4. Sectorization of Cartagena-La Unión Post-Mining District for the survey of the significant resources: protected riverbeds, agricultural areas, protected natural areas, and cultural resources (size of each division ≈ 8 km2).
Figure 4. Sectorization of Cartagena-La Unión Post-Mining District for the survey of the significant resources: protected riverbeds, agricultural areas, protected natural areas, and cultural resources (size of each division ≈ 8 km2).
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Figure 5. Most valuable resources of the Cartagena-La Unión Post-Mining District.
Figure 5. Most valuable resources of the Cartagena-La Unión Post-Mining District.
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Figure 6. Distribution patterns of homogeneous areas.
Figure 6. Distribution patterns of homogeneous areas.
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Figure 7. Cartagena-La Unión Post-Mining District Greenway network.
Figure 7. Cartagena-La Unión Post-Mining District Greenway network.
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Table 1. Cultural–historical resources in Cartagena La Unión Post-Mining District.
Table 1. Cultural–historical resources in Cartagena La Unión Post-Mining District.
Cultural ResourcesQuantityCultural ResourcesQuantity
Headframe64Roman road1
Chimneys of factories, storages, foundries, and galleries19Cemetery1
Education house of miners1
Mining stove18Market building1
Mine galleries and various remnants14Hermit1
Foundry1
Flotation plant11Hospital1
Quarry7Church1
Explosive storage4Factory of mining machines1
Battery2Monastery1
Caves2Museum1
Ancient settlement2Passage1
House for managers2Villa1
Tunnel2Total160
Table 2. Areas covered by homogenous zones.
Table 2. Areas covered by homogenous zones.
Homogenous ZonesArea (km2)Area (%)
Riverbeds1.75.6
Protected areas6.621.6
Agricultural area0.31
Geomorphological protection1.65.2
Zone of national defense0.41.3
Post-mining area4.916.1
Urban area2.68.5
Suitable area for urbanization0.72.3
Unprogrammed urban area2.68.5
Portman Bay0.10.3
Port0.31
Natural zone8.728.5
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Faz, A.; Kabas, S.; Zornoza, R.; Martínez-Martínez, S.; Acosta, J.A. Multifunctional Greenway Approach for Landscape Planning and Reclamation of a Post-Mining District: Cartagena-La Unión, SE Spain. Land 2025, 14, 1657. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14081657

AMA Style

Faz A, Kabas S, Zornoza R, Martínez-Martínez S, Acosta JA. Multifunctional Greenway Approach for Landscape Planning and Reclamation of a Post-Mining District: Cartagena-La Unión, SE Spain. Land. 2025; 14(8):1657. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14081657

Chicago/Turabian Style

Faz, Angel, Sebla Kabas, Raul Zornoza, Silvia Martínez-Martínez, and Jose A. Acosta. 2025. "Multifunctional Greenway Approach for Landscape Planning and Reclamation of a Post-Mining District: Cartagena-La Unión, SE Spain" Land 14, no. 8: 1657. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14081657

APA Style

Faz, A., Kabas, S., Zornoza, R., Martínez-Martínez, S., & Acosta, J. A. (2025). Multifunctional Greenway Approach for Landscape Planning and Reclamation of a Post-Mining District: Cartagena-La Unión, SE Spain. Land, 14(8), 1657. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14081657

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