The Potential Role of Precision Agriculture in Building Sustainable Livelihoods and Farm Resilience Amid Climate Change: A Stakeholders’ Perspective from Southern Punjab, Pakistan

Abstract

This study explores the potential role of precision agricultural technologies (PATs) in enhancing the physical, natural, human, financial, and social capitals of farming communities in the southern Punjab region of Pakistan, specifically focusing on the districts of Bahawalpur, Rahim Yar Khan, Dera Ghazi Khan, and Multan. A stratified random sampling method with proportional allocation was employed to gather insights from four heterogeneous key stakeholder groups, including progressive farmers, researchers, extension agents, and academicians, yielding a total sample of 287 respondents. A structured questionnaire utilizing a five-point Likert scale was administered, allowing the respondents to assess the perceived potential impacts of the PATs on various livelihood assets. The findings reveal that while stakeholders recognized some potential for PATs to improve physical assets, natural resources, and human capital, the overall perceived impact remained limited across all dimensions. The highest-rated potential impact was noted in crop diversity, with an average score of 2.26 in the physical capital category. In the category of natural capital, precise plant protection practices were rated the highest, with an average score of 2.31 that showed little potential change. A reduction in labor displacement issues and generating skilful employment resources, with average scores of 2.12, were rated the highest in the human capital category. A slight increase in family income, with an average score of 2.28, was observed in the financial capital category, highlighting cautious optimism among respondents. Additionally, reducing family problems and social issues, with an average score of 2.20, was rated the highest, leading to a minimal perceived change in social capital, indicating a need for integrated approaches to foster stronger community ties. The results underscore the necessity for targeted interventions that combine technological adoption with community engagement to enhance the overall resilience of farming systems. This research contributes valuable insights into adopting PATs and their implications for sustainable livelihoods, emphasizing the importance of aligning technological advancements with the unique needs of farming communities in the face of a changing climate.

1. Introduction

Agriculture is one of the sectors most vulnerable to climate change and a significant contributor to it, accounting for about a quarter of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [1,2]. Climate change further refers to changes in the overall agricultural environment worldwide. The increasing unpredictability of weather patterns, extreme temperatures, frequent droughts, and intense flooding all threaten agricultural productivity and food security [3,4]. Climate change is an imminent threat to the agricultural sector in Pakistan. Changes in temperature, extreme weather patterns, decreasing biodiversity, soil conditions due to earthquakes, and unexpected flooding directly affect crop yields and farmers’ incomes in countries such as Pakistan. It is important to mention that Pakistan has witnessed a series of floods in its history; the most recent was in 2010, and it resulted in an estimated loss of over USD 1 billion in the agricultural sector in Punjab, Pakistan [5].

As global food demand rises and natural resources dwindle, the need for more sustainable and efficient farming practices has never been more critical. This is where precision agricultural technologies (PATs) come into play as powerful tools to improve farm resource management while enhancing resilience to climate change [6]. To overcome climate-related challenges in the future, the potential applications of precision agriculture may play a critical role in Pakistan in terms of building the capacity of farmers to improve crop management, precisely use water, reduce fertilizer usage, and improve resilience to climate change. Tools such as satellite imaging, drones, sensors and data management software are essential for the adoption of precision agriculture among different stakeholders in southern Punjab, Pakistan.

Precision agriculture also called future agriculture since it provides the potential use of advanced technologies, such as satellite imagery, GPS, drones, sensors, and data analytics, to provide detailed, real-time insights into farming operations for effective and timely decision-making of the farmers regarding their crop production and protection practices in the study area [7]. These insights enable farmers to optimize inputs such as water, fertilizers, and pesticides, ensuring efficient resource utilization while reducing environmental impacts. For instance, precision irrigation systems allow for more efficient water use, which is critical in addressing the challenges posed by water scarcity and changing precipitation patterns. Farmers may reduce water waste by up to 30% by adopting precise irrigation systems in Pakistan [8]. Similarly, precision nutrient management minimizes the overuse of fertilizers, reducing the risk of soil degradation and nutrient runoff into waterways while cutting down GHG emissions associated with fertilizer production and application [9]. In addition, hand-held sensor-based green seeker instruments for monitoring nitrogen fixation and plant health would help farmers in Pakistan to make data-based decisions to improve their crop production, reduce costs, and confront other climate change threats.

However, the significance of precision agriculture goes beyond its environmental benefits. By improving the efficiency of farm operations, PATs enhance farm productivity, livelihood stability, and financial sustainability, which are vital for farming communities to withstand and adapt to the impacts of climate change [10]. Adopting these technologies improves crop yields and helps farmers make informed decisions that reduce their vulnerability to climate risks [11]. For instance, better crop forecasting and risk assessment tools allow farmers to adjust their planting and harvesting schedules based on weather patterns, thus minimizing potential crop losses due to extreme weather events.

Despite these advantages, the adoption of PATs is uneven across different regions and farming systems, particularly in developing countries [12]. Barriers such as high initial costs, limited technical knowledge, and lack of infrastructure hinder the widespread use of these technologies. Understanding stakeholders’ perspectives on the impacts of PATs on farms, livelihood, financial, and social resources is crucial to promoting their adoption and scaling them up as a part of global climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies.

India has made considerable progress in adopting precision agriculture technologies in the past two decades, including using drones for data collection, a global positioning system (GPS) and remote sensing technologies, and image reading. One study conducted by Mondal and Basu [13] described how PATs have a great potential to change the agricultural system in India and Pakistan since both countries have similar soil and environmental conditions in the Punjab region on both sides of the border. The authors further said that consistent efforts are needed to counter the challenges and limitations that create hurdles in adopting PATs.

This study explored the potential role of adopting precision agricultural technologies on farms, livelihood, financial, and social resources while highlighting their role in building climate resilience [10]. This study explored the impact of Precision Agriculture Technologies (PATs) on natural, physical, financial, human, and social capitals within the context of the Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF). The research sought to uncover the mechanisms through which these technologies could enhance climate-resilient agricultural systems in developing countries like Pakistan.

This study contributes to the growing body of knowledge on climate-smart agriculture, which is important for future food security, improving livelihoods, reducing poverty in the era of climate change [14] and adopting precision agricultural technologies. This study was envisaged to fill the research gap on precision agriculture in Pakistan. Furthermore, it identified the key benefits and challenges associated with PAT adoption, offering insights into how these technologies could support farmers in the rapidly changing climate change scenario.

This study was conducted in southern Punjab, Pakistan. This region is characterized by its rich agricultural heritage and is known as one of the dominant agricultural production areas in the province, contributing significantly to the national economy [15]. However, it is also highly vulnerable to climate change, experiencing challenges such as droughts, water scarcity, and fluctuating weather patterns, which impact agricultural productivity and livelihoods [16]. This study assessed the perspectives of key agricultural stakeholders, including progressive farmers [17] extension professionals, academicians, and researchers, on the role of precision agricultural technologies in enhancing farm, livelihood, financial, and social resources. The focus on diverse stakeholders provided a holistic understanding of how these technologies may be perceived, learned, and adopted in the respective professional areas of four types of stakeholders and the challenges and opportunities in their application.

Ever since the communication revolution, the world has diverted attention toward precision agricultural technologies (PATs) as tools to enhance farm productivity, financial stability, resilient livelihoods, and decision-making, as seen in important research efforts [18,19]. On the other hand, there is a considerable knowledge gap for adopting and adapting PATs among agricultural stakeholders such as farmers, academicians, researchers, and extension professionals in Pakistan. Most existing studies have focused on PAT adoption in developed economies, where resources and infrastructural support are more advanced [20,21,22]. In contrast, limited empirical evidence exists on how these technologies impact farm resources, livelihoods, and financial and social capital in resource-constrained environments. Furthermore, the link between PAT adoption and climate change adaptation and resilience remains underexplored, especially from the perspective of key agricultural stakeholders, including progressive farmers, extension professionals, and researchers in developing countries. This study addresses these gaps by examining the multifaceted benefits of PATs within the unique context of Punjab’s agriculture while also investigating how these technologies contribute to climate change resilience.

The findings of the study provide critical insights for policymakers, extension services, and agricultural communities, offering strategies to optimize resource management and strengthen climate adaptation efforts. This research aimed to analyze the potential role of adopting precision agricultural technologies in improving farm, livelihood, financial, and social resources and to draw implications for climate resilience. The results of this study emphasize that policymakers, extension professionals, and researchers need to bridge the knowledge gap through the transfer of advanced knowledge to the end users to improve their decision-making for increased farm productivity and ultimately to bring changes to the livelihoods of the farmers of this country.

1.1. Theoretical Framework: Sustainable Livelihoods Framework

The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) was adopted as the theoretical framework for this research to analyze the role of PATs in enhancing the resilience of farming communities through the enhancement and improvement of farms and associated resources [23]. The notion of SLF provided a holistic approach to understanding how households and communities could combine and utilize various assets to achieve sustainable livelihoods, especially in the face of external stressors such as climate change [24]. This framework was particularly useful in exploring how PATs, as a technological innovation, could influence the different categories of livelihood assets—human, social, financial, and natural resources.

In the context of this study, the SLF emphasized five core livelihood assets human, social, financial, physical, and natural capitals, which are interconnected and collectively determine the resilience of farming systems. The integration of PATs into agricultural practices can impact these assets positively or negatively, depending on factors such as adoption rates, accessibility, and resource allocation. For instance, human capital can be influenced by developing skills and knowledge as farmers engage with precision technologies [25,26]. Financial capital may improve due to better decision-making, leading to a more efficient use of resources and potentially a better income. In contrast, social capital could be enhanced by fostering farmer collaboration and knowledge-sharing. Due to this interconnectedness, adopting precision agricultural technologies (PATs) could further lead to sustainable food security measures in the study area and the country.

According to Serrat [27], the sustainable livelihoods approach encourages innovative thinking, must be aligned with the needs of the local population, and does not provide a single solution for all problems. The SLF’s focus on vulnerability and external shocks is also critical for examining the role of PATs in climate resilience. As climate change increases the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, PATs can mitigate these risks by enabling farmers to make data-driven decisions, optimize resource use, and improve productivity. The framework provides a structured way to assess how the adoption of PATs interacts with existing livelihood strategies to either strengthen or weaken resilience to climate-related shocks.

Furthermore, the SLF allowed this study to account for the diverse experiences of farmers with different socioeconomic backgrounds and capacities. By evaluating the impact of PATs on various livelihood assets, the framework provided insights into the equity of technological adoption, as discussed by Chambers and Conway [28] in their study, and its potential to enhance the long-term sustainability and resilience of agricultural livelihoods. Through this lens, this study assessed the immediate economic and social outcomes of PAT adoption and its implications for the broader challenge of building adaptive capacity in farming communities faced with climate change. Natarajan et al. [29] proposed a revised Sustainable Livelihoods Framework to present the new challenges encountered by people in the 21st century in a better way. The updated SLF document highlighted the significance of understanding the concept of livelihoods from a global viewpoint while focusing on achieving local outcomes.

Applying the Sustainable Livelihood Framework in the context of PATs provided an opportunity to observe the valuable changes in the livelihood assets of the agricultural stakeholders in southern Punjab, Pakistan. Understanding the variations and changes in the livelihood assets of the respondents is crucial for better future planning, policy decision-making, and resource distribution in this part of the country and for building a more resilient agricultural sector in the era of climate change.

1.2. PAT Role in Resource Efficiency for Building Climate-Resilient Farms

The potential for PATs to create skilled employment and reduce labor displacement could facilitate a smoother transition for farming communities grappling with the challenges posed by climate change [30]. By equipping farmers with new skills and promoting workforce development, adopting PATs could enhance a community’s capacity to respond and adapt to climate-related challenges, ultimately strengthening social resilience. Financial implications may also play a crucial role in climate resilience. The potential for an increased family income through adopting PATs could provide farmers with the resources necessary to invest in adaptive measures such as improved infrastructure and sustainable practices. Access to stable financial resources and risk management tools could mitigate the uncertainties associated with climate variability, empowering farmers to make informed decisions that could bolster their resilience.

Moreover, the interconnectedness of health and agriculture should not be overlooked. Through PAT adoption, enhancements in family health facilities could contribute to stronger, healthier communities better positioned to adapt to climate stresses. A holistic approach that considers health, economic stability, and environmental sustainability could foster a more resilient agricultural sector.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area and Population

This study focused on four districts in the southern region of Punjab, Pakistan: Bahawalpur, Rahim Yar Khan, Dera Ghazi Khan, and Multan as highlighted in the map of Punjab province in Figure 1. The study region is overwhelmingly rural with an agriculture-based economy. Approximately 54% of the households in southern Punjab live below the poverty level. A household is considered extremely poor if members live on less than USD1.90 per person per day [31]. In addition, 70–75% of the total population of farmers in the country is considered small-scale farmers, with average farm sizes of 5–10 acres [32].

Digital technologies and spatial infrastructure are the core requirements for implementing and adopting precision agricultural technologies (PATs) among the stakeholders in the study area. Keeping in view the significance of future food security and changing the livelihood status of the inhabitants in this part of the country, government policymakers are now diverting attention towards digitalizing the agricultural system to enjoy the full benefits of PATs for sustainable agricultural development in the region. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and the Ministry of National Food Security and Research, Government of Pakistan, recently launched the Digital Agriculture Consortium (DAC) in Pakistan.DAC will encourage collaboration, knowledge exchange, and strategic planning to transform Pakistan’s agriculture in the age of digitalization and promote spatial technology applications by providing basic infrastructure with across the country [33]. The southern Punjab region has established infrastructure for agricultural extension services, including a network of extension agents and training programs to support local farmers.

Additionally, the presence of key agricultural universities in the region facilitates research and development, fostering innovation and the dissemination of knowledge among progressive farmers. Farmers who could understand PATs and who were financially sound were considered progressive farmers. These farmers were often early adopters of new technologies and were instrumental in implementing best practices and driving agricultural resilience.

2.2. Sampling Approach

This study employed a two-stage sampling procedure to ensure a good representative sample size. Firstly, the lists of the potential respondents from all four districts were prepared to compute the overall sample size. Secondly, a stratified random sampling technique with the proportional allocation of the respondents was employed to compute the sample size for each population from each district. The study population was heterogeneous, encompassing various characteristics and experiences related to agricultural practices; hence, it was divided into four distinct strata: progressive farmers, researchers, extensionists, and academicians.

Stratified random sampling has several advantages over other sampling techniques, including increased precision in estimating population parameters when significant differences exist between subgroups. This sampling approach reduces sampling error and improves the representation of each subgroup of the heterogeneous population.

To calculate the overall sample size, the counted population sizes of each stratum were utilized. The total population size across the four groups was determined as N= 1012. Therefore, Yamane [34] gives a formula for the computation of the sample size for a finite population, which is defined as follows:

$$n={\displaystyle \frac{N}{1+N{e}^2}}$$

where “n” is the sample size, “N” is the total population size, and “e” is the margin of error (set to 0.05 for this study).

2.3. Computation of the Sample Size from Each Population

This study used proportionate stratified random sampling techniques to calculate the sample size for each population from each district. The total district population was known and the total sample size was already computed using the Yamane formula. Using that formula, a subgroup sample size from each population and each district was computed and is mentioned below in

Table 1. Computation of sample size from each district population.

Sr. No.	District	Population = N	Sample of Each Component from Each District
1	Multan	Academicians = 154	nMTNACAD = 154 × 94/331 = 43
		Researchers = 17	nMTNRES = 5
		Extensionists = 10	nMTNEXT = 3
		Progressive farmers = 150	nMTNPG = 43
	TOTAL	331 = N	94 = n, 287 × 331/1012 = 93.87
2	Rahim Yar Khan	Academicians = 15	NRYKACAD = 4
		Researchers = 10	NRYKRES = 3
		Extensionists = 20	nRYKEXT = 6
		Progressive farmers = 200	NRYKPG = 57
	TOTAL	245	70
3	Bahawalpur	Academicians = 64	nMTNACAD = 11
		Researchers = 40	NDGKRES = 7
		Extensionists = 10	NDGKEXT = 3
		Progressive farmers = 150	NDGKPG = 28
	TOTAL	264	49
4	Dera Ghazi Khan	Academicians = 38	NRYKACAD = 18
		Researchers = 24	NBWPRES = 11
		Extensionists = 10	NBWPEXT = 3
		Progressive farmers = 100	NBWPPG = 42
	TOTAL	172	74
	GRAND TOTAL	1012	287

and Figure 2.

2.4. Survey Instrument

A comprehensive survey instrument was developed through extensive discussions involving the experts and reviewing the relevant literature based on the research objectives designed by the researcher. A structured questionnaire was formulated to obtain the respondents’ viewpoints on a predetermined set of questions, utilizing a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (no potential change in my livelihood assets), 2 (little potential change in my livelihood assets), 3 (moderate potential change in my livelihood assets), 4 (significant potential change in my livelihood assets) and 5 (highly significant potential change in my livelihood assets). A panel of experts from the Department of Agricultural Extension & Rural Studies, University of Sargodha, Pakistan, established the content and face validity of the survey instrument. The responses were subsequently analyzed using statistical techniques, including mean and standard deviation, to rank the perceived mean impacts of PATs on various livelihood assets.

2.5. Pre-Testing of the Survey Instrument

To ensure the reliability of the survey instrument, a pilot study was conducted with 41 respondents who were not part of the actual sample. This pilot study identified and removed minor ambiguities in the questionnaire. Revisions were made to the interview schedule based on the feedback received. The Cronbach alpha reliability coefficients for all major survey factors were computed for the pilot study and the final data collection. The instrument’s reliability was satisfactory in both phases, with coefficients exceeding 90%.

Table 2. Reliability coefficients for the survey instrument.

Variable	Number of Items	Alpha for Pilot Study (n = 41)	Alpha for Final Study (n = 287)
Categorization of respondents’ skills in PATs	43	0.93	0.95
Cognitive skills concerning IQ level of the respondents	26	0.94	0.96
Potential role of PATs in the development of livelihood assets of the respondents	40	0.97	0.97
Potential role of PATs in improving food security	17	0.94	0.95

provides detailed information on the reliability coefficients for each section of the survey instrument. The section of the survey instrument related to the potential role of the PATs in the development of livelihood assets of the survey respondents had a high-reliability coefficient (i.e., 97%) both in the pilot study and in the final study.

2.6. Data Collection and Analysis

A cross-sectional data collection approach was administered. Data were collected at a single point in time from the respondents in December 2023 and January 2024. The data were analyzed very comprehensively for this study. Firstly, data were coded and entered into Microsoft Excel for efficient data management, making it easy to handle editing and correction. Secondly, the data were exported to SPSS (Version 28.0) for overall doctoral study research data analysis. Thirdly, Statistix 8.1 software was used for obtaining quick frequency tables, means, standard deviations, and ranks of the questions asked during the survey to represent the data better and interpret the results.

3. Results and Discussion

The findings of this study reflect the worthwhile potential applications of precision agricultural technologies (PATs) for developing sustainable livelihoods of agricultural stakeholders and further highlight the significance of PATs for farm resilience in the scenario of climate change, according to the perceptions of four types of stakeholders in southern Punjab, Pakistan.

In this section, we discuss the impact of the future adoption of PATs and its association with livelihood outcomes, which could ultimately bring developmental change in sustainable agricultural practices to enhance farmers incomes and food security in the study region. Statistical measures such as mean, standard deviation (Std. Dev., the score dispersion), and rank order have been used to present the data for each livelihood capital under the specific items that respondents considered obligatory. The statistical measure of rank is the order from the highest to the lowest item as per the mean score of that particular item for which respondents provided their opinion in the survey. It further prioritizes the items asked for and summarizes the data for easy decision-making and comparison by the researcher of the items.

3.1. Physical Capital

The findings on the potential role of PATs in enhancing physical assets suggest minimal change across the various aspects assessed (

Table 3. Perceived impact of PAT adoption on physical capital.

Item Seeking Respondent’s Perspective	Mean	Std. D.	Ranking
Improvement of average crop diversity index	2.26	1.23	1
Capacity to raise more animals	2.23	1.10	2
Good infrastructure (hospitals, roads, markets, schools, etc.)	2.19	1.22	3
Increase in land holding	2.18	1.22	4
No need for subsidies from the government for fuel, electricity, supplies, etc.	1.99	1.06	5
High-quality and sustainable supply of food products	1.96	0.90	6
Good housing facilities	1.79	1.08	7
Sustainable agricultural practices	1.71	0.93	8

). Among farm resources, the highest-rated impact was on crop diversity, with an average score of 2.26, indicating little potential change in the crop diversity index. The capacity to raise more animals followed closely, receiving an average score of 2.23, also reflecting limited change. Infrastructure improvements, such as hospitals, roads, markets, and schools, were ranked third, with a similar average score of 2.19, again indicating a minor potential impact.

The increase in landholding was rated fourth with an average score of 2.18, showing minimal potential change due to PAT adoption. Similarly, findings further suggest a minimal potential change in the responses of the respondents, having average scores of 1.99, 1.96, and 1.79 and ranked fifth, sixth, and seventh when asked about potential changes in need of subsidies required from government for electricity, fuel, and agricultural inputs supplies in addition to the supply of high-quality food products and good housing facilities in the study area respectively. Finally, the impact on sustainable agricultural practices was ranked lowest, with an average score of 1.71, and suggesting a minimal role of PATs in improving physical capital. The findings reveal that according to the respondents—farmers, researchers, academicians, and extension agents—the potential role of PATs in enhancing physical capital was perceived as limited across the various dimensions. The marginal improvements noted, such as the slight increase in crop diversity (average score of 2.26) and the capacity to raise more animals (score of 2.23), suggest that while PATs may hold some potential to impact farm resources positively, their influence has yet to be fully realized. Farmers, in particular, may be hesitant to adopt these technologies widely due to high costs, a steep learning curve, and the need for complementary infrastructure, which explains why the perceived benefits were minimal.

Researchers and extension agents have likely observed that while PATs could optimise crop selection and livestock management, their broader impact on physical assets—such as infrastructure and landholding—is still emerging. Infrastructure improvements, such as roads, markets, hospitals, and schools, received a low score (2.19), indicating that the respondents saw limited potential for PATs to affect these areas directly. This finding suggests that while PATs can improve on-farm efficiency, broader infrastructural development might require policy interventions and investments beyond technological adoption. The respondents might have recognized that the full potential of PATs to enhance physical capital relies not only on individual farm-level adoption but also on larger systemic changes within rural communities.

When comparing these perceptions to previous studies’ findings, respondents’ mixed potential aligned with the existing literature. For example, Puppala et al. [10] pointed out that while PATs could boost efficiency, their full impact often depended on overcoming barriers such as cost and access to knowledge. This may explain why the respondents perceived limited potential change. This cautious optimism reflected that PATs, although theoretically beneficial, have not yet been widely adopted by farmers due to challenges in scaling up these technologies, especially in regions with limited support services, such as in southern Punjab, Pakistan.

In terms of landholding, the respondents’ low score of 2.18 suggests that the perceived potential of PATs to transform traditional farming practices remained underwhelming. This may reflect reluctance among farmers to make significant changes to long-established practices without clear evidence for immediate economic gains. The slow pace of adoption noted by extension agents also reflected concerns about the affordability and the practicality of integrating these technologies into existing farming systems. These perceptions were consistent with a study by Le Hoang Nguyen et al. [12], which noted that although PATs could reshape land management practices, widespread adoption was often hindered by economic and cultural barriers that were difficult to overcome without strong extension support and education initiatives.

Lastly, the respondents’ perceptions of the limited potential for PATs to improve sustainable agricultural practices, with a score of 1.71, further highlight the challenges regarding adopting these technologies. The extension agents and researchers may have recognized that, while PATs could improve resource efficiency and productivity, their economic impact was often delayed, requiring substantial time and investment before tangible income increases could be observed. These findings align with those of Nowak [21], who emphasized that the economic returns from PAT adoption tended to accrue over time; this may explain why the respondents, particularly farmers, perceived only modest potential in these areas.

Singh et al. [35] conducted a similar a study in India to highlight the impact of precision agriculture adoption on the livelihoods of Indian farmers. They concluded that PAT adoption may have improved the farmers’ overall livelihoods and physical capital. However, when the results were compared with the present study, a notable difference in adoption was observed for improving the overall livelihood capital of Pakistani farmers. The main reasons for the difference could be different demographic factors and the adoption levels of the respondents in the two countries. The agricultural stakeholders’ awareness levels, cognitive skills, and capacity building for adopting PATs in the two countries differed.

3.2. Natural Capital

For agricultural and natural resources (

Table 4. Perceived impact of PAT adoption on natural capital (agricultural and natural resources).

Item Seeking Respondent’s Perspective	Mean	Std. D.	Ranking
Precise plant protection practices	2.31	1.24	1
Precise agroforestry practices	2.25	1.17	2
Precise application of input resources to cope with natural and other man-made disasters	2.16	1.16	3
Precise harvesting	2.14	1.21	4
Training of labor as per requirements of labor for farm activities	2.14	1.21	4
Precise post-harvest	2.12	1.13	5
Precise sowing activities	2.09	1.01	6
Precise irrigation	2.09	1.01	6
Precise applications of crop-related inputs in the field i. Seed ii. Fertilizer iii. Chemicals	1.97	0.95	7

), the potential adoption of precise plant protection practices was rated highest, with an average score of 2.31, reflecting a slight potential for change. Precise agro-forestry practices followed with a score of 2.25, again indicating limited improvement. The role of PATs in the precise application of input resources to manage natural and man-made disasters was ranked third, with a score of 2.16.

Regarding labor resources, the potential for training laborers according to farm activity requirements was rated fourth, scoring 2.14, which showed a limited impact. Precise post-harvest practices were ranked fifth, with an average score of 2.12, indicating minimal potential change. Finally, the role of PATs in precise applications of crop-related inputs in the field was rated lowest, with a mean score of 1.97, suggesting a very limited impact.

The findings on the potential role of precision agricultural technologies (PATs) in enhancing natural capital suggest a limited perceived impact across various agricultural and natural resources management dimensions. According to the respondents—farmers, researchers, academicians, and extension agents—the highest-rated aspect was the adoption of precise plant protection practices (average score of 2.31). Still, it indicated only a slight potential for PATs to improve natural resource management. This marginal change reflects the cautious optimism among stakeholders that while PATs could optimise inputs, including pesticides and fertilizers, their broader role in transforming natural capital remained underdeveloped. The farmers may have recognized the benefits of more precise plant production and protection, particularly in reducing input overuse and mitigating environmental degradation. Still, challenges in adoption, such as costs and access to technology, likely tempered their enthusiasm.

The second-highest score, 2.25 for precise agro-forestry practices, pointed to a similarly modest perceived potential for PATs in supporting sustainable land use and the integration of trees with crops. The respondents may have viewed agro-forestry as an area where PATs could theoretically contribute to better land management and biodiversity conservation, but in practice, the barriers to adoption—such as the need for specialized knowledge and additional resources—could be limiting factors. This aligns with previous research, such as a study by Pandey et al. [24], which reported that while improving sustainability in agro-forestry systems, their full potential is often hindered by economic and technical constraints that slowed adoption rates, particularly in small-scale or resource-constrained farming contexts.

The role of PATs in the precise application of input resources to manage natural and man-made disasters, with a score of 2.16, was ranked third. This finding suggests that the respondents saw potential in using PATs to improve resilience to challenges such as droughts, floods, and pest outbreaks, but they perceived limited impact. Researchers and extension agents might have recognized that while precision technologies could enhance resource efficiency, their ability to mitigate larger environmental risks would depend on how comprehensively they were integrated into disaster management strategies. Previous studies, such as one by Cappelli et al. [3], have similarly emphasized the potential role of PATs in reducing vulnerability to natural disasters for the community, though they noted that effective implementation requires significant training, coordination, and infrastructure. This could explain why the respondents rated this impact modestly.

The perception of limited potential for training laborers according to farm activity requirements (average score of 2.14) further underscored the challenges associated with fully realizing the benefits of PATs in managing natural capital. Theoretically, PATs could provide the solution to optimize trained laborers to enhance work efficiency at the farm level; however, the respondents felt that still more measures needed to be taken for training and capacity building of their human resources.

This finding mirrors those of Le Hoang Nguyen et al. [12], who identified that adopting precision agriculture often required the significant re-skilling of farm labor. This could be a major barrier to adoption, especially in regions with limited technical training resources. As a result, the perceived potential of PATs to enhance labour management concerning natural capital was constrained by these practical considerations.

Further, the respondents perceived minimal potential change after the adoption of PATs to improve labor training for farm activities (score of 2.14) and precise post-harvest practices (score of 2.12), respectively, highlight significant challenges in leveraging these technologies to enhance skillful labor and post-harvest efficiency for quality crop production. Respondents further showed similar perceptions for precise sowing activities (score of 2.09), precise irrigation (score of 2.09), and precise applications of crop-related inputs such as seed, fertilizer, and chemicals in the field (score of 1.97).

The respondents likely viewed these areas as requiring more advanced technological integration and infrastructure, which could be beyond the reach of many farming communities. The low rating in terms of labor training, in particular, suggests that the farmers and extension agents saw limited immediate benefits from PATs in this domain, possibly due to the high costs and technical complexity involved in training workers to use the new technologies effectively. This is consistent with the findings of Puppala et al [10], who reported that the benefits of PATs in labor efficiency were often realized only after substantial investments in education and training, which may not yet have been widespread in many farming communities.

A similar study was conducted by Ngugi et al. [36] in Kenya, and they observed an improvement in natural capital due to the adoption of precision agriculture in their study area. It could be argued that factors such as interest, awareness, and cognitive skills are important for adopting PATs in addition to the cost and availability of the technologies.

3.3. Human Capital

The findings on the potential impact of adopting PATs on livelihood sustainability indicate minimal change across various human assets (

Table 5. Perceived impact of PAT adoption on human capital.

Item Seeking Respondent’s Perspective	Mean	Std. D.	Ranking
Reduction in labor displacement issues	2.12	1.01	1
Generation of skillful employment resources	2.12	1.08	1
Better family health facilities	2.10	1.13	2
Time and labor saving	2.09	1.14	3
Reduction in family migration	2.07	1.06	4
Minimization of health threats, disabilities, and impairments during farming practices	1.96	1.08	5
Building self-esteem	1.78	0.96	6

). The highest-rated impacts were on reducing labor displacement issues and generating skillful employment, receiving an average score of 2.12. This suggests a limited potential for improvement in these areas. Similarly, better family health facilities were rated second, with a score of 2.10, indicating a slight improvement.

The potential for PATs to save time and labor was rated third, with an average score of 2.09, showing marginal impact. The reduction in family migration was ranked fourth, with a score of 2.07, indicating a small potential effect due to PAT adoption. The role of PATs in minimizing health threats, disabilities, and impairments during farming practices was rated fifth, with a score of 1.96, reflecting a limited impact in reducing the health risks associated with farming.

Finally, the potential role of PATs in building self-esteem was rated the lowest, with an average score of 1.78, depicting a very minimal perceived impact. The stakeholders perceived little potential change in livelihood resources due to adopting PATs.

The findings on the potential impact of PATs on human capital, as perceived by the respondents—farmers, researchers, academicians, and extension agents—highlight the limited potential for improving human assets associated with livelihood sustainability. The highest-rated impacts, such as the reduction of labor displacement and the generation of skillful employment, with an average score of 2.12, suggest that while PATs may have offered some benefits in these areas, their perceived effect remained modest. This cautious outlook likely stemmed from the fact that while PATs could improve the efficiency of farm operations, the immediate transformation of labor markets and employment opportunities in farming communities was still in its infancy. Farmers, in particular, may have viewed the adoption of PATs as requiring significant up-scaling, which could be a challenge given the cost and accessibility of training programs, limiting the overall perceived benefits.

The role of PATs in improving family health facilities, rated second with an average score of 2.10, reflected a slightly more optimistic perspective on how these technologies could indirectly contribute to better health outcomes. By reducing the physical strain of farming activities and improving time management, PATs can allow families to allocate more time and resources to their health and well-being. However, the minimal improvement suggested by the scores indicates that these benefits may not be immediate or widespread. The respondents likely recognized that while PATs can improve efficiency, the direct connection to an enhanced health infrastructure remains weak. This is consistent with findings from studies such as that of Nugui et al. [36] highlighting the indirect benefits of PATs on social well-being.

The third-highest score, 2.09, for the potential of PATs to save time and labor, further emphasizes the limited perceived impact of these technologies on human capital. While PATs are designed to optimize labor use and reduce the time burden of farming activities, the marginal improvement perceived by stakeholders suggests that the benefits of timesaving were not yet fully realized. This may be due to the complexities and learning curves of using these technologies, particularly in regions with limited technical support and infrastructure access. A study by Locatelli et al. [2] echoes this finding, noting that although PATs could reduce the manual labor required for certain tasks, the overall time savings could be offset by the need for new skills and knowledge to operate these technologies effectively.

The perceived minimal impact of PATs on reducing family migration, with an average score of 2.07, underscores the challenges associated with stabilizing rural populations through technology adoption. Although the respondents acknowledged that PATs could, in theory, reduce the need for rural-to-urban migration by creating more resilient and productive farming systems, the actual effects on family migration appeared to be limited. The farmers may have felt that while PATs could improve productivity slightly, they did not yet offer the economic security needed to prevent migration in search of better opportunities. This perception aligns with existing studies [10,12], which found that while technological innovations could improve farm productivity, their capacity to retain rural populations was often constrained by broader economic and social factors.

The lowest-rated impacts, such as the role of PATs in minimizing health threats (score of 1.96) and building self-esteem (score of 1.78), suggest a limited perception of the technologies’ ability to enhance human well-being directly. The respondents likely viewed these areas as requiring more than just technological interventions to result in an improvement, as health risks and self-esteem issues in farming are often tied to broader socioeconomic conditions. While PATs may reduce exposure to some occupational hazards, the relatively low scores indicate that the stakeholders did not perceive a significant reduction in health risks or an increase in farmer self-confidence through technology adoption alone. This finding is supported by work from Ukhurebor et al. [37], who noted that while PATs could reduce some physical risks in farming, the overall impact on well-being required a holistic approach that included health education and access to healthcare services.

3.4. Financial Capital

The findings on the potential impact of PATs on financial capital reveal a modest outlook from the respondents—farmers, researchers, academicians, and extension agents (

Table 6. Perceived impact of PAT adoption on financial capital.

Item Seeking Respondent’s Perspective	Mean	Std. D.	Ranking
Increase in family income	2.28	1.26	1
Helpful in creating financial help for fellow farmers	2.14	1.27	2
Helpful in supporting other allied businesses	2.06	0.97	3
Helpful in paying debts	2.05	1.07	4
Provision of sustainable financial resources	1.90	1.05	5

). The highest-rated impact, increasing family income, received a score of 2.28, indicating that while there was some potential for PATs to enhance financial resources, the perceived benefit was minimal. This may be attributed to the fact that, although PATs could improve productivity and resource efficiency, their high upfront costs and the need for technical knowledge could limit their immediate financial returns. These findings align with studies such as those by Mittal and Mehar [38], which suggested that while modern technologies could lead to financial gains, such benefits often require time to materialize, particularly in resource-constrained environments.

The second highest score of 2.14 for the role of PATs in creating financial assistance for fellow farmers further highlights the limited perceived impact on broader financial support mechanisms within farming communities. This finding suggests that the stakeholders did not yet view PATs as significantly contributing to collective financial improvement, perhaps due to a lack of accessible funding programs or collaborative initiatives that leveraged these technologies for shared economic growth. Previous research [39] indicated that while such technologies could foster financial resilience, the necessary institutional support structures, such as farmer cooperatives or government subsidies, were crucial for realizing these benefits.

Lastly, the low ratings for the ability of PATs to assist in debt repayment (2.05) and provide sustainable financial resources (1.90) reflect a cautious view of the long-term financial stability these technologies could offer. These scores suggest that while PATs may enhance short-term productivity, they were not yet seen as a reliable solution for overcoming significant financial challenges, including debt or securing sustainable income streams. This is consistent with findings from the study conducted by Pierpaoli et al. [40] in which they emphasized that factors like decision-making, management skills, market access, and the role of other value chain actors in the agriculture system besidess the adoption of precision agricultural technologies are important for financial stability. Hence, it is inferred that without adequate financial literacy, access to affordable credit, and targeted support for technology adoption, PATs alone were unlikely to substantially transform the financial landscapes of farming communities.

3.5. Social Capital

The findings on social capital reveal a generally cautious perception among the stakeholders (

Table 7. Perceived impact of PAT adoption on social capital.

Item Seeking Respondent’s Perspective	Mean	Std. D.	Ranking
Reducing family problems and social issues	2.20	1.10	1
Helpful in gaining social support	2.16	1.02	2
Stress-free mobility	2.14	0.99	3
Improving contact with fellow senior farmers/leaders	2.12	1.12	4
Help in maintaining sustainable relationships with community, government, and other organizations	2.09	1.12	5
Providing access to community and political leaders and government officials who can visit precision agricultural farms to learn new lessons, such as how to improve crop yield per acre on present arable land	2.06	1.15	6
Improving social contacts with local government and the community	1.66	0.88	7

). The highest-rated potential impact, which pertained to reducing family problems and social issues, received an average score of 2.20. This suggests that while the stakeholders acknowledged a slight benefit from adopting PATs in promoting social cohesion and addressing family-related challenges, the overall perception remained limited. The modest rating may have stemmed from the understanding that while technology could mitigate some social issues, it could not address deeper systemic problems that require broader social and institutional interventions. Research by Pretty et al. [41] supports this, indicating that social capital is complex and often requires more than technological solutions to enhance community well-being.

The second-highest score of 2.16 was for the role of PATs in facilitating social support, which echoed a similar sentiment. The stakeholders recognized that PATs may contribute to building social networks and support systems, yet the perceived change remained minimal. This highlights the need for integrated approaches that combine technology with community engagement and capacity-building initiatives to foster stronger social ties. A study by Arbuckle et al. [42] emphasized that social capital thrives in environments where relationships and trust are prioritized, indicating that technology adoption should be accompanied by efforts to strengthen social networks among farmers and their communities.

The respondents perceived little potential change in providing access to community and political leaders and government officials to visit precision agricultural farms to learn new lessons, such as to showcase to improve per acre crop yield on present arable land after adopting PATs (2.06). The lowest score associated with enhancing connections with local government and community members (1.66) further underscores the limited perceived benefits of PATs on social capital. The stakeholders may have viewed the adoption of these technologies as insufficient to bridge the gaps between farmers and local institutions. This suggests a need for more proactive measures to enhance collaboration and engagement. Previous study [43], have highlighted the importance of fostering connections between farmers and broader institutional frameworks to realize the potential of technological advancements fully. Therefore, while PATs may offer opportunities for enhancing social assets, their impact is contingent upon establishing supportive networks and collaborative efforts that transcend technological adoption alone.

4. Conclusions and Policy Implications

This study assessed the potential role of precision agricultural technologies (PATs) in changing the livelihoods and statuses of farmers in southern Punjab, Pakistan, as well as other stakeholders in the agricultural system at large. The results showed that the stakeholders understood the significance of PATs; however, the change was still at the initial minimum level. During the survey, it was noticed that the respondents would greatly benefit from adopting or adapting PATs in the physical capital areas of crop diversity and family income.

Overall, the stakeholders remained skeptical about the transformative potential of these technologies in enhancing farm resilience. A lack of awareness or understanding of how PATs would be effectively integrated into existing agricultural practices to address climate vulnerability and improve sustainability are the critical questions to be answered by policymakers and the experts of these technologies. In addition, it is inferred from the findings that the study area of southern Punjab faced many challenges, such as poverty, an uneven distribution of resources, and a lack of basic services. Around 70–75% of the farmers were marginalised and considered small-scale farmers. This may be considered another challenge for adopting PATs in the area. However, dreaming of a better livelihood in the future and of a sustainable food supply is a right of life across the world. In this context, the potential adoption of precision agricultural technologies among all the stakeholders of the agricultural system in southern Punjab, Pakistan, is crucial.

The implications of these findings are significant. Policymakers and other stakeholders in Pakistan must address the knowledge gaps at all levels, including research, education, and extension, and they must assess the risks farmers face to enjoy the complete benefits of precision agricultural technologies. These are achievable through awareness-creating campaigns, short training courses for researchers, extension staff, and progressive farmers, and initiating degree programs in precision agriculture at the university level. In addition, establishing demonstration farms to implement precision agricultural practices, providing financial subsidies to small-scale farmers, initiating technical knowledge transfer, and building the desired infrastructure are imperatives to enjoy the full benefits of precision agricultural technologies. It is further concluded that in the future, only advanced technologies such as PATs can potentially bring about change in areas such as crop diversity, the precise applications of input resources, and economic stability among all the stakeholders of agricultural systems in countries such as Pakistan. Therefore, think tanks and policymakers in Pakistan must have strategic plans in place for adopting PATs at a wider scale to build sustainable, resilient agricultural communities in the era of climate change.

In addition, it is concluded that adopting precision agricultural technologies for climate resilience is significant and multifaceted. By enhancing crop diversity, PATs can improve the adaptability of farming systems to climatic variability, thereby reducing vulnerability to climate shocks. The ability to diversify crops not only helps in sustaining yields during adverse weather conditions but also contributes to overall ecosystem health, fostering a more resilient agricultural landscape.

During the survey, the respondents perceived that addressing the risks associated with the potential adoption of PATs at all levels, such as in academia, research, extension, and among progressive farmers, is crucial to reap the full benefits of these technologies soon in Pakistan.

In conclusion, adopting precision agricultural technologies can enhance climate resilience by promoting diversification, creating employment opportunities, improving financial stability, and strengthening community health. By addressing these interconnected dimensions, stakeholders can cultivate a more adaptive agricultural system capable of thriving amid the challenges posed by climate change.

5. Recommendations for Future Research

Future research should explore the present research’s limitations by including a diverse group of respondents, such as smallholders and marginalized farmers, to understand their perspective in a socio-economic context. In addition, research may also be conducted to highlight the cognitive skills and capacity-building abilities of human resources in precision agricultural technologies concerning climate change practices. Research on the risk assessment for adopting precision agricultural technologies may be conducted in Pakistan to understand the respondents’ dilemma in the climate change scenario. Comparative research may also be conducted by taking data from different countries or regions that can further help to develop more realistic and effective agricultural policies for future applications of PATs in the country.